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Le développement d’un cancer chez un individu immunocompétent témoigne del’inefficacité de ses défenses immunitaires naturelles à entraver la progression tumorale. Larestauration ou l’induction de réponses immunitaires anti-tumorales efficaces sont des enjeuxmajeurs des stratégies thérapeutiques actuelles. En plus des immunothérapies classiques,visant à activer le système immunitaire des patients contre leurs tumeurs, les thérapiesconventionnelles, telles que les chimiothérapies et la radiothérapie, peuvent avoir des effetsimmunostimulants, en parallèle de leur effet directement cytotoxique sur les cellulestumorales. Parmi celles-ci, les anthracyclines, l’oxaliplatine et la radiothérapie sontnotamment capables d’induire une mort cellulaire immunogène. L’efficacité thérapeutique deces traitements dépend de l’activation de lymphocytes T (LT) CD8 anti-tumoraux,producteurs d’interféron-gamma (IFN-γ). En utilisant des modèles murins de tumeurstransplantées, nous montrons que le traitement des cellules tumorales par des droguesimmunogènes induit la libération d’adénosine triphosphate (ATP) dans le milieu extracellulaire.Ce signal de danger endogène se lie à son récepteur P2RX7 sur les cellulesdendritiques et permet la formation de l’inflammasome NLRP3/ASC/pro-caspase 1,conduisant à l’activation protéolytique de la caspase 1, qui active la pro-interleukine-1β (pro-IL-1β) en interleukine-1β (IL-1β). L’IL-1β peut directement agir sur les LT CD8 pourfaciliter leur polarisation vers un phénotype de lymphocytes T cytotoxiques de type 1 (Tc1).De plus, le traitement de tumeurs établies par des drogues immunogènes induit uneproduction d’IL-17A (IL-17) dans le lit tumoral, au cours de la première semaine suivant letraitement. Les LT gamma delta (LTγδ) sont les principaux producteurs de cette cytokinedans nos modèles. Ces cellules s’accumulent transitoirement dans la tumeur dès le troisièmejour suivant le traitement et leur taux est parfaitement corrélé à celui des LT CD8 producteursd’IFN-γ tumoraux. Comme l’IFN-γ, l’IL-17 et les LTγδ sont nécessaires à l’efficacitéthérapeutique des drogues immunogènes. L’IL-1β produite par les cellules dendritiquesexposées à des corps apoptotiques immunogènes stimule directement la production d’IL-17par les LTγδ. Ces travaux ont contribué à identifier l’ATP extra-cellulaire comme undéterminant moléculaire de l’immunogénicité des cellules tumorales exposées à certainesthérapies anti-cancéreuses conventionnelles. De plus, nous montrons que les traitementscytotoxiques classiques peuvent moduler l’environnement immunitaire dans le lit tumoral, etcontribuer à remplacer une inflammation chronique et immunosuppressive en uneinflammation aigüe et immunogène. L’étude des interactions entre le système immunitaire etles thérapies anti-cancéreuses conventionnelles est nécessaire pour utiliser ces traitements demanière plus rationnelle, en les combinant par exemple à des immunothérapies plusclassiques. / In most cases, cancer occurs in immunocompetent individuals, revealing the potential failure of the immune system to impair tumor development. Trying to restore or to induce an efficient anti-tumoral immune response is part of the main challenges of cancer treatment. In addition to the classical immunotherapeutic compounds, conventionnal cytotoxic treatments can also have some immunostimulatory effects. Among these treatments, the chemotherapeutic agents oxaliplatin and anthracyclins, as well as irradiation, can induce an immunogenic cell death, contributing to the activation of IFNγ-producing CD8 T cells. We show that upon treatment with immunogenic drugs, tumor cells are able to release ATP in the extracellular medium. This ATP can act on dendritic cells through its receptor P2RX7, which is able to activate the inflammasome NLRP3 and the subsequent production of IL-1β. Using models of transplantable tumors in mice we could show that the production of IL-1β induced by immunogenic treatments was mandatory for their efficacy. In addition to being directly involved in Tc1 cells polarization, IL-1β could promote the production of IL-17A by gamma delta T cells which were accumulating in the tumor bed following chemotherapy. We could show that these IL-17 producing gamma delta T cells were involved in treatment efficacy. This work has revealed that extracellular ATP was a crucial endogenous danger signal involved in anti-cancer chemotherapy efficacy. Furthermore, we have shown that conventionnal cytotoxic compounds could transform the smoldering pro-tumoral inflammation into an acute and immunogenic anti-tumoral one. This work may have some clinical implications, especially in the setting of therapeutic protocols involving the combination of conventionnal cytotoxic therapies with selected immunoadjuvants for the treatment of cancer.

L’inflammation joue un rôle clé dans de nombreuses pathologies, telles que les maladies inflammatoires chroniques, les désordres métaboliques et le cancer. L’un de ses médiateurs le plus puissant est l’interleukine-1β (IL-1β), qui est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire participant à tous les stades de l’inflammation et de l’immunité. Son activation est régulée par un complexe multi-protéique nommé inflammasome, dont la caspase-1 active en découlant est responsable du clivage et de la maturation de l’IL-1β. Huit types d’inflammasomes activant et clivant la pro-caspase-1 ont été identifiés et contiennent tous la protéine ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD). Les inflammasomes partagent un signal intracellulaire commun et le mécanisme menant à leur assemblage et leur activation n’est pas totalement élucidé. L’utilisation de la lignée cellulaire humaine monocytaire, THP-1, différenciée en macrophages grâce à un ester de phorbol, le TPA, a permis la mise en place d’un modèle d’étude de modulateurs de l’inflammasome en conditions stériles. Ce modèle a permis l’étude des mécanismes impliqués suite à des signaux issus de l’inflammation chronique, tels que l’ATP et les espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS). Ce travail montre qu’il existe une synergie entre ATP et ROS, qui agissent grâce à une boucle d’activation impliquant probablement plusieurs inflammasomes, dont NLRP3. Des donneurs de NO connus (trinitrine et isosorbide dinitrate) ou nouveau (dérivé de purine) ont montré une activité anti-inflammatoire. D’autres composés ont été identifiés comme de potentiels inhibiteurs d’inflammasome (extraits de dattes et dérivé de purine portant un acide lipoïque) / Inflammation has a pivotal role in several disorders, such as chronic inflammatory diseases, metabolic disorders and cancer. Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is one of the most powerful mediators in this mechanism. IL-1β is a pro-inflammatory cytokine which is implicated in every step of inflammation and immunity. IL-1β is regulated by a multi-protein complex named inflammasome, in which active caspase-1 is responsible for IL-1β processing and maturation. Eight inflammasomes processing and activating pro-caspase-1 has been identified and all contain the adaptor protein ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD). Inflammasomes share a common intracellular signal and the mechanism for their structural assembly and activation is not totally clear. The human monocytic cell line, THP-1, has been used and cells have been differentiated in macrophages by the phorbol ester, TPA. Based on this, a cellular pattern has been established for studying inflammasome modulators under sterile conditions. This pattern allowed the study of implicated mechanisms in chronic inflammatory signals, such as ATP and reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study shows that ATP and ROS synergize for activating inflammasomes and NLRP3 and act in an autocrine loop. Stimulation with others natural or synthetic compounds has been realized for characterization of their inflammatory activity. Therapeutic NO donors (trinitrin and isosorbide dinitrate) and a new NO donor (purine nitrate ester) have been characterized for their anti-inflammatory activity. Others compounds from a new category of inflammasome inhibitors have been identified (date fruit extracts and lipoic acid purine derivative)

Mycoplasma hominis est une bactérie opportuniste qui peut être responsable d’infections du tractus urogénital, d’infections néonatales ou d’infections disséminées notamment chez les patients immunodéprimés. La membrane des mycoplasmes constitue l’interface d’interaction directe avec le milieu extérieur en raison de l’absence de paroi. Cette membrane contient de nombreuses lipoprotéines qui ont le pouvoir d’activer des cellules dendritiques humaines (hDCs), d’induire la production de cytokines et de polariser le système immunitaire adaptatif. Nous avons étudié l’interaction de M. hominis PG21 avec les hDCs en nous penchant d’une part sur la fraction du mycoplasme qui active les hDCs et d’autre part sur la réponse immunitaire innée des hDCs. Apres avoir déterminé les lipoprotéines contenues dans un extrait TX-114 de M. hominis PG21, nous avons enrichi en lipoprotéines bioactives une fraction de vésicules membranaires du mycoplasme par une double extraction utilisant deux détergents non dénaturants, le Sarkosyl puis le Triton X-114. Apres séparation par SDS-PAGE, nous avons identifié vingt lipoprotéines qui pourraient entrainer la sécrétion d’IL-23 par les hDCs, notamment la lipoprotéine MHO_4720. Un lipopeptide synthétique correspondant à la fraction N-terminale de MHO_4720 est capable de stimuler les hDCs. En analysant les variations transcriptionnelles des gènes codant pour les 48 lipoprotéines de M. hominis PG21 par qRT-PCR, nous avons également déterminé que 21 lipoprotéines sont surexprimées après 4h ou 24h de contact entre le mycoplasme et les hDCs. Enfin, la réponse cellulaire a été évaluée par PCR array et ELISA. Nous avons observé l’activation d’inflammasome(s) par la mise en évidence de la production d’IL-1β dépendant de la caspase 5. / Mycoplasma hominis is involved in urogenital tract infections, neonatal infections or disseminated infections particularly in immunocompromised patients. Mycoplasmas have no cell wall and their membrane is the main interface mediating the interaction between the mycoplasma and its environment. Lipoproteins that are anchored to the extracellular side of the plasma membrane are known to induce the maturation of human dendritic cells (hDCs), to stimulate the pro-inflammatory cytokine production by hDCs and to polarize the adaptive immune system. We studied the interaction of M. hominis PG21 with hDCs in order to assess the lipoproteins that can induce the stimulation of hDCs, to determine the lipoproteins that are regulated upon interaction of the mycoplasma with the host cell and to evaluate the innate host cell response. Using a double extraction strategy with two non-denaturing detergents, Sarkosyl then Triton X-114, and separation by SDS-PAGE, we found that 20 lipoproteins may induce the secretion of IL-23 by the hDCs, especially the MHO_4720 lipoprotein. We showed that a synthetic lipopeptide corresponding to the N-terminus part of the MHO_4720 lipoprotein can stimulate the hDCs in a dose-dependent manner. Using qRT-PCR for the evaluation of the transcriptional regulation of the 48 lipoprotein-coding genes of M. hominis PG21, we also determined that 21 lipoproteins were upregulated upon 4h and 24h of contact of M. hominis with hDCs. Finally, the hDC innate immune response was evaluated by PCR array and ELISA. We observed a caspase 5-dependent production of IL- 1β corresponding to the activation of an inflammasome.

Le dysfonctionnement de l'exocytose des granules cytotoxiques est responsable d'une susceptibilité accrue aux pathogènes intracellulaires qui s'accompagne de l'activation continue et anarchique des lymphocytes cytotoxiques et des macrophages. Ce phénomène conduit à la lymphohistiocytose hémophagocytique (HLH), un syndrome auto-inflammatoire fatal en absence d'intervention thérapeutique. Les mutations des gènes codant pour la perforine (PRF-1) ou pour certaines des protéines impliquées dans la biogénèse ou le transport vésiculaire des granules cytotoxiques sont causales des formes familiales ou primaires de la HLH (FHL). La HLH fait également partie des complications secondaires aux infections à herpesviridae et à certains désordres immunologiques importants tels que l'arthrite juvénile idiopathique (SoJIA). Au moment d'entreprendre les travaux présentés dans ce manuscrit, le premier cas de HLH induite par une mutation menant à l'activation constitutive de la composante NLRC4 de l'inflammasome était décrit. L'inflammasome est une structure multimérique composée d'un récepteur cytosolique, de la protéine échafaud ASC et de la Caspase-1. Son activation mène à la maturation des pro-formes de l'IL-1β et l'IL-18 ainsi qu'à leur sécrétion. L'activation constitutive de NLRC4 étant suffisante au déclenchement de la HLH, nous avons tenté de comprendre si cette structure y était essentielle dans le cadre des défauts génétiques de cytotoxicité. Nous avons donc invalidé la protéine ASC ou Caspase-1 dans le modèle murin de HLH déficient pour la perforine (PRF1 -/-). Nous avons également testé l'hypothèse qu'un déficit de cytotoxicité pouvait expliquer le développement de la HLH chez les patients souffrant de SoJIA. Nos résultats montrent que l'inflammasome est nécessaire à la production d'IL-18 lors de la HLH mais qu'il n'est pas essentiel au développement de la maladie dans le cadre des FHL. Par ailleurs, nous montrons que la cytotoxicité des cellules NK semble normale chez les patients atteints de SoJIA, ce qui suggère que les mécanismes immunologiques à l'origine de la HLH dans les FHL et dans les maladies autoinflammatoires comme la SoJIA sont distincts. Dans la seconde partie de ce manuscrit, nous avons étudié sur le rôle de la sérine/thréonine/tyrosine kinase Styk1 dans la régulation des lymphocytes cytotoxiques NK. Ces derniers sont responsables du contrôle immunitaire précoce des pathogènes intracellulaires et contribuent à l'immunosurveillance des cellules tumorales. Suite à leur activation, ils relâchent de très grandes quantités d'IFN-y et de TNF-α, faisant ainsi le lien entre l'immunité innée et adaptative. La reconnaissance des cellules cibles par les lymphocytes NK est gouvernée par l'expression d'un éventail de récepteurs qui transduisent des signaux, activateurs ou inhibiteurs, et dont la balance se traduit par l'activation ou la tolérance. Ces récepteurs sont codés au sein de deux complexes génétiques très denses, le complexe de cytotoxicité naturelle (NCR) et le complexe des récepteurs des leucocytes (LRC). Au moment de commencer ces travaux, nous avions révélé que l'expression de la kinase Styk1 fait partie de la signature transcriptionnelle des lymphocytes NK. Sa fonction dans le système immunitaire demeure toutefois inconnue. Néanmoins, la localisation génétique favorable de Styk1, près du NCR, ainsi que son implication dans la voie PI3K-AKT, en faisaient un candidat potentiel de régulation des lymphocytes NK. Afin de connaître le rôle de Styk1 dans le développement et les fonctions effectrices des lymphocytes NK, nous avons donc généré une souris pour laquelle Styk1 est invalidé. Nos résultats confirment que Styk1 est exprimée de façon spécifique par les cellules NK. Nous avons également détecté une diminution de l'activité constitutive de la voie AKT/mTOR dans les cellules NK, mais le développement, l'homéostasie et la fonction des cellules NK sont cependant normaux dans les souris déficientes en Styk1 / Upon recognition of infected or target cells, CD8+ T and Natural Killer (NK) lymphocytes initiate a polarized degranulation of vesicle storing cytotoxic molecules (perforin: PRF1 and granzyme B). By altering the target cell’s cellular membrane integrity, perforine allows granzyme B to translocate to its cytosol. Genetic anomalies may affect normal cytotoxic functions and severely hamper the control of intracellular pathogens. In this context, the pathogenic signal remains uninterrupted and both cytotoxic lymphocytes and macrophages are continuously stimulated. This auto-inflammatory pathological condition is named hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and is fatal without therapeutic intervention. HLH can also occur secondary to infection with viruses from the herpesviridae family, or be concomitant to important immune alterations such as systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis (SoJIA), with no clear etiological cause identified. In 2014, a case of HLH mediated by the constitutive activation of the NLRC4 inflammasome receptor was first described. The inflammasome is a multimeric structure involving a cytosolic receptor, a scaffold protein – ASC – and Caspase-1. In the immune system, the inflammasome is expressed in macrophages and dendritic cells and senses pathogenic (PAMP) and danger (DAMP) associated signals. Once activated, inflammasome’s protein Caspase-1 catalyzes the maturation of pro-IL-1b and pro-IL-18 and leads to their secretion. Since NLRC4 constitutive activation appears to be sufficient for triggering HLH, we aimed to understand if the inflammasome structure was essential to the development of the syndrome. In order to address this question, we invalidated the inflammasome through the abrogation of ASC or Caspase-1 in PRF1 -/- HLH mouse model. We also tested the hypothesis that an altered cytotoxic function could explain the high prevalence of HLH in the proinflammatory context of SoJIA. The results we present here show that the inflammasome is responsible for the elevated levels of IL-18 in the serum of HLH patients. However, the inflammasome is facultative for its development. We also demonstrate that in patients suffering from SoJIA, NK cells show normal cytotoxicity, suggesting that immunological mechanisms involved in FHL and secondary HLH are distinct. In the second part of this manuscript, we aim at understanding the role of Styk1 serine/threonine/tyrosine kinase in NK cells’ regulation. NK cells are in charge of eliminating stressed, virally infected or transformed cells. Upon activation, they secrete large amounts of IFN-γ and TNF-α, thus bridging innate and adaptive immunity. Capabilities for recognition of target cells is endowed by the expression of numerous stochastically expressed activating and inhibitory receptors. The balance between activating and inhibitory signal allows for self-tolerance or activation upon engagement of abnormal cells. Activating and inhibitory receptor are germline encoded in two dense, large complexes, the Natural Killer Complex (NKC) and the Leukocyte Receptor Complex (LRC). At the moment of starting this work, we had recently identified that Styk1 was a signature transcript of NK cells. However, its function in NK cells and more generally in the immune system remains unknown. Nevertheless, its genetic localisation near the NKC and its potential implication in the PI3K-AKT pathway prompt that it may play a role in NK cell development and/or functions. In order to evaluate the role of Styk1 in NK cells’ regulation, we generated a mouse model in which its expression is abrogated. Our data confirms that amongst all immune subsets, Styk1 is specifically expressed by NK cells. Styk1 was also able to discriminate NK cells from other ILCs. In this study, we show that Styk1 invalidation lead to a decrease of activity in the AKT/mTOR pathway. However, NK cells development, homeostasis and function were surprisingly normal in Styk1 -/- mice

Le développement d'un cancer chez un individu immunocompétent témoigne del'inefficacité de ses défenses immunitaires naturelles à entraver la progression tumorale. Larestauration ou l'induction de réponses immunitaires anti-tumorales efficaces sont des enjeuxmajeurs des stratégies thérapeutiques actuelles. En plus des immunothérapies classiques,visant à activer le système immunitaire des patients contre leurs tumeurs, les thérapiesconventionnelles, telles que les chimiothérapies et la radiothérapie, peuvent avoir des effetsimmunostimulants, en parallèle de leur effet directement cytotoxique sur les cellulestumorales. Parmi celles-ci, les anthracyclines, l'oxaliplatine et la radiothérapie sontnotamment capables d'induire une mort cellulaire immunogène. L'efficacité thérapeutique deces traitements dépend de l'activation de lymphocytes T (LT) CD8 anti-tumoraux,producteurs d'interféron-gamma (IFN-γ). En utilisant des modèles murins de tumeurstransplantées, nous montrons que le traitement des cellules tumorales par des droguesimmunogènes induit la libération d'adénosine triphosphate (ATP) dans le milieu extracellulaire.Ce signal de danger endogène se lie à son récepteur P2RX7 sur les cellulesdendritiques et permet la formation de l'inflammasome NLRP3/ASC/pro-caspase 1,conduisant à l'activation protéolytique de la caspase 1, qui active la pro-interleukine-1β (pro-IL-1β) en interleukine-1β (IL-1β). L'IL-1β peut directement agir sur les LT CD8 pourfaciliter leur polarisation vers un phénotype de lymphocytes T cytotoxiques de type 1 (Tc1).De plus, le traitement de tumeurs établies par des drogues immunogènes induit uneproduction d'IL-17A (IL-17) dans le lit tumoral, au cours de la première semaine suivant letraitement. Les LT gamma delta (LTγδ) sont les principaux producteurs de cette cytokinedans nos modèles. Ces cellules s'accumulent transitoirement dans la tumeur dès le troisièmejour suivant le traitement et leur taux est parfaitement corrélé à celui des LT CD8 producteursd'IFN-γ tumoraux. Comme l'IFN-γ, l'IL-17 et les LTγδ sont nécessaires à l'efficacitéthérapeutique des drogues immunogènes. L'IL-1β produite par les cellules dendritiquesexposées à des corps apoptotiques immunogènes stimule directement la production d'IL-17par les LTγδ. Ces travaux ont contribué à identifier l'ATP extra-cellulaire comme undéterminant moléculaire de l'immunogénicité des cellules tumorales exposées à certainesthérapies anti-cancéreuses conventionnelles. De plus, nous montrons que les traitementscytotoxiques classiques peuvent moduler l'environnement immunitaire dans le lit tumoral, etcontribuer à remplacer une inflammation chronique et immunosuppressive en uneinflammation aigüe et immunogène. L'étude des interactions entre le système immunitaire etles thérapies anti-cancéreuses conventionnelles est nécessaire pour utiliser ces traitements demanière plus rationnelle, en les combinant par exemple à des immunothérapies plusclassiques.

Hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys) is a widely known pathogenic factor in the progression of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and it is also associated with an increased risk for injurious cardiovascular pathologies during ESRD. HHcys is linked to the formation and activation of the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, characterized as a critical early mechanism initiating the inflammatory response. NADPH oxidase (NOX)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediate the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in podocytes in response to elevated levels of homocysteine (Hcys) in vitro and in vivo. However, it remains unknown how NLRP3 inflammasome activation is triggered by NOX. The aim of the present study sought to determine the signaling cascade that triggers glomerular injury and sclerosis during hHcys mediated by Vav2, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GNEF). Using both genetic and pharmacological interventions of Vav2, we first tested whether this GNEF is involved in hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in podocytes by its role in activation of the Rac-1-NOX complex. Further, we explored whether pharmacological targeting of Vav2 activation may regulate NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway during hHcys-induced glomerular injury. We found that mice with hHcys (on the FF diet) or oncoVav2 (a constitutively active form of Vav2) transfection in the kidney exhibited increased colocalization of NLRP3 with apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) or caspase-1 and elevated IL-1β levels in glomeruli, indicating the formation and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This glomerular NLRP3 inflammasome activation was accompanied by podocyte dysfunction and glomerular injury, even sclerosis. Local transfection of Vav2 shRNA plasmids significantly attenuated hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation, podocyte injury, and glomerular sclerosis. In cultured podocytes, Hcys treatment and oncoVav2 transfection increased NLRP3 inflammasome formation and activation. This NLRP3 activation was inhibited by Vav2 shRNA, associated with reduction of Rac-1 activity and ROS production. Administration of NSC23766, a Rac-1 inhibitor substantially attenuated inflammasome formation, desmin expression and decreased podocin expression in glomeruli of hHcys mice. These results suggest that elevated Hcys levels activate Vav2 and thereby increase NOX activity, leading to ROS production. ROS trigger NLRP3 inflammasome activation, podocyte dysfunction and glomerular injury. Therefore, the present study defines a novel mechanism underlying hHcys-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its progression to ESRD.

A doença renal crônica é uma doença mediada pelo sistema imune e caracterizada por fibrose. Camundongos deficientes em TLR2, TLR4, MyD88 e NLRP3 se mostraram protegidos frente ao dano renal e à deposição de colágeno após serem submetidos à obstrução unilateral do ureter (UUO). Além disso, os camundongos protegidos exibiram menor produção de citocinas relacionadas com um perfil imune Th2 e apresentaram menor acúmulo de macrófagos do subtipo M2. Inicialmente, creditamos aos macrófagos M2 o papel de macrófagos formadores de fibrose uma vez que tal subpopulação é encontrada em maior número aos sete dias após a UUO em animais WT, porém, vimos que os personagens centrais no desenvolvimento da fibrose são macrófagos M1, encontrados no início da lesão renal. Também vimos que o ácido úrico é a molécula capaz de induzir a troca de fenótipo de M1 para M2 ao longo da UUO, além de ser capaz de ativar a via do inflamassoma. O ácido úrico solúvel é liberado em um contexto de hipóxia e ativa o complexo do inflamassoma NLRP3 por mecanismos diferentes, mas complementares. / Chronic kidney disease is an immune mediated disease characterized by fibrosis development. The damaged tissue releases molecules such as soluble uric acid resulting from the degradation of extracellular matrix or dead cells, which activate TLR and NLR, leading to the translocation of MyD88 in many cell types. This modulation of the immune system interferes with the activation of different subtypes of macrophages and activity of CD4+ T cells, with the Th1/Th2 paradigm as a possible effector mechanism of fibrosis. TLR2, TLR4, MyD88, and NLRP3 deficient mice are protected against renal damage and collagen deposition after being submitted to unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO), when compared to wild type animals. Moreover, protected mice exhibited less production of Th2 related cytokines and reduced accumulation of M2 macrophages. Initially, we hypothesized M2 macrophages are responsible for fibrosis formation since this subset is found in greater numbers seven days after UUO in WT mice, however, we observed the central characters on the development of fibrosis are M1 macrophages found in the onset of renal injury. These data were confirmed by the injection of Stat6 KO M1 macrophages into Rag deficient mice previously depleted of macrophages and subjected to UUO, in which we observed higher proteinuria and increased collagen deposition. We also observed that uric acid is able to induce the exchange of phenotype from M1 to M2 along the UUO, besides being able to activate the inflammasome pathway. The soluble uric acid is released in the context of hypoxia and activates the NLRP3 inflammasome complex by different, but complementary mechanisms. Therefore, the renal damage releases soluble uric acid, which signals via innate immune receptors, and the damage brings as a consequence the deposition of proteins in the renal interstitium, culminating in fibrosis.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) está associado a diversas complicações micro e macrovasculares diretamente relacionadas a doenças cardiovasculares. A prolongada exposição à hiperglicemia e a resistência a insulina são considerados os principais fatores envolvidos nestas complicações, as quais são exacerbadas pela disfunção endotelial. Mediadores inflamatórios contribuem potencialmente para o desenvolvimento de disfunção endotelial pela geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) que, por sua vez, estimulam a transcrição de fatores pró- inflamatórios. Receptores específicos, como os NLRs (NOD-like receptors, receptores do tipo NOD) contribuem para instalação de processo inflamatório pela ativação do complexo inflamassoma. Este regula a ativação da caspase-1 e o processamento proteolítico dos precursores pró-IL-1? e pró-IL-18 nas citocinas maduras. Diversos mediadores podem ativar o inflamassoma NLRP3 como, por exemplo, EROs e DNA mitocondrial. Pouco é conhecido sobre o envolvimento de receptores NLRP3 e DNA mitocondrial na disfunção endotelial associada ao diabetes. Testamos a hipótese que a deficiência genética do receptor NLRP3 confere resistência à ativação de processo inflamatório na vasculatura de animais com diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) e, ainda, que DNA mitocondrial contribui para a ativação vascular do inflamassoma NLRP3 e para disfunção endotelial. Foram utilizados camundongos C57Bl/6 e deficientes para NLRP3, os quais foram tratados com veículo ou submetidos a protocolo para indução de DM1 com estreptozotocina. Parâmetros vasculares funcionais foram determinados em artérias mesentéricas de resistência. Células de músculo liso vascular (CMLV) e endoteliais foram utilizadas para avaliação da ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 por DNA mitocondrial. A geração de EROs foi avaliada pela fluorescência para o dihidroetídio e pela quimiluminescência para lucigenina. A ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? foi avaliada por western blot e o influxo de cálcio, por fluorescência. DNA mitocondrial foi avaliado pela expressão gênica de componentes da mitocôndria. O diabetes reduziu a vasodilatação dependente de endotélio, o que não ocorreu em artérias de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Animais diabéticos apresentaram aumento da expressão vascular do receptor NLRP3, da ativação de caspase-1 eIL-1? e da geração de EROs e peróxido de hidrogênio no leito mesentérico, eventos que ocorreram em menor intensidade em camundongos deficientes de NLRP3. Houve redução na expressão proteica vascular de Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4), bem como na expressão gênica da molécula de adesão celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) e molécula de adesão intercelular-1 (ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1) em animais deficientes de NLRP3. Houve aumento da liberação de DNA mitocondrial citosólico no pâncreas de animais diabéticos. A incubação com o DNA mitocondrial extraído do pâncreas de animais diabéticos promoveu ativação do inflamassoma em CMLV provenientes de animais C57Bl/6, mas não em CMLV provenientes de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Esta ativação foi associada ao aumento de EROs e influxo de cálcio. Essa mesma ativação também foi observada em células endoteliais. DNA mitocondrial de camundongos diabéticos também reduziu a dilatação dependente do endotélio em artérias mesentéricas, o que foi associado à geração de EROs e ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3. Pacientes diabéticos apresentaram aumento do DNA mitocondrial circulante e ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? no soro. Os resultados demonstram que o DNA mitocondrial pancreático de animais diabéticos promove ativação, em CMLV e células endoteliais, do inflamassoma NLRP3 através do aumento no influxo de cálcio e da geração de EROs, contribuindo para o processo de disfunção endotelial. A deficiência de NLRP3 protege os animais diabéticos contra os danos vasculares inflamatórios e disfunção endotelial. / Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with several micro and macrovascular complications directly related to cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged exposure to hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are considered the main factors involved in these complications, which are exacerbated by endothelial dysfunction. Inflammatory mediators potentially contribute to the development of endothelial dysfunction by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, stimulate the transcription of pro-inflammatory factors. Specific receptors such as NLRs (NOD-like receptors) contribute to the onset of inflammatory processes by the activation of a multiprotein complex called inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome regulates the activation of caspase-1 and the proteolytic processing of pro-IL-1? and pro-IL-18 precursors into mature cytokines. Several mediators, such as ROS and mitochondrial DNA activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. Considering that it is not clear whether NLRP3 and mitochondrial DNA contribute to diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction, we hypothesized that the genetic deficiency of the NLRP3 confers resistance to vascular inflammatory processes in animals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and that mitochondrial DNA contributes to vascular activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and endothelial dysfunction. C57B1/6 and NLRP3 knockout mice were treated with vehicle or streptozotocin to induce T1D. Functional vascular parameters were determined in resistance mesenteric arteries. Cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and endothelial cells were used to determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation by mitochondrial DNA. ROS generation was evaluated by dihydroethidium fluorescence and by chemiluminescence for lucigenin. Caspase-1 and IL-1? activation was evaluated by western blot. Calcium influx was determined by fluorescence and mitochondrial DNA by mRNA expression of mitochondrial components. Diabetes reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in C57B1/6, but not in NLRP3 knockout mice. Diabetic mice presented increased vascular NLRP3 receptor expression, increased caspase-1 and IL-1? activation, as well as ROS and hydrogen peroxide generation, events that were mildly observed in NLRP3 knockout mice. There was a reduction in the vascular protein expression of Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4) as wellas in the gene expression of VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) and ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) in NLRP3 knockout animals. There was an increase in cytosolic mitochondrial DNA release in pancreas from diabetic animals. Mitochondrial DNA from the pancreas of diabetic mice induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in VSMC from C57B1/6 mice, but not in VSMC from NLRP3 knockout mice. This activation was associated with increased levels of ROS and calcium influx and was also detected in endothelial cells. Mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice also decreased endothelium-dependent dilation in mesenteric arteries, which was associated with ROS generation and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Diabetic patients exhibited increased serum mitochondrial DNA and caspase-1 and IL-1? activation. The results demonstrate that pancreatic mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in VSMC and endothelial cells by increasing calcium influx and ROS generation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction. NLRP3 deficiency prevents diabetes-related vascular inflammatory damage and endothelial dysfunction.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) está associado a diversas complicações micro e macrovasculares diretamente relacionadas a doenças cardiovasculares. A prolongada exposição à hiperglicemia e a resistência a insulina são considerados os principais fatores envolvidos nestas complicações, as quais são exacerbadas pela disfunção endotelial. Mediadores inflamatórios contribuem potencialmente para o desenvolvimento de disfunção endotelial pela geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) que, por sua vez, estimulam a transcrição de fatores pró- inflamatórios. Receptores específicos, como os NLRs (NOD-like receptors, receptores do tipo NOD) contribuem para instalação de processo inflamatório pela ativação do complexo inflamassoma. Este regula a ativação da caspase-1 e o processamento proteolítico dos precursores pró-IL-1? e pró-IL-18 nas citocinas maduras. Diversos mediadores podem ativar o inflamassoma NLRP3 como, por exemplo, EROs e DNA mitocondrial. Pouco é conhecido sobre o envolvimento de receptores NLRP3 e DNA mitocondrial na disfunção endotelial associada ao diabetes. Testamos a hipótese que a deficiência genética do receptor NLRP3 confere resistência à ativação de processo inflamatório na vasculatura de animais com diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) e, ainda, que DNA mitocondrial contribui para a ativação vascular do inflamassoma NLRP3 e para disfunção endotelial. Foram utilizados camundongos C57Bl/6 e deficientes para NLRP3, os quais foram tratados com veículo ou submetidos a protocolo para indução de DM1 com estreptozotocina. Parâmetros vasculares funcionais foram determinados em artérias mesentéricas de resistência. Células de músculo liso vascular (CMLV) e endoteliais foram utilizadas para avaliação da ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 por DNA mitocondrial. A geração de EROs foi avaliada pela fluorescência para o dihidroetídio e pela quimiluminescência para lucigenina. A ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? foi avaliada por western blot e o influxo de cálcio, por fluorescência. DNA mitocondrial foi avaliado pela expressão gênica de componentes da mitocôndria. O diabetes reduziu a vasodilatação dependente de endotélio, o que não ocorreu em artérias de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Animais diabéticos apresentaram aumento da expressão vascular do receptor NLRP3, da ativação de caspase-1 eIL-1? e da geração de EROs e peróxido de hidrogênio no leito mesentérico, eventos que ocorreram em menor intensidade em camundongos deficientes de NLRP3. Houve redução na expressão proteica vascular de Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4), bem como na expressão gênica da molécula de adesão celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) e molécula de adesão intercelular-1 (ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1) em animais deficientes de NLRP3. Houve aumento da liberação de DNA mitocondrial citosólico no pâncreas de animais diabéticos. A incubação com o DNA mitocondrial extraído do pâncreas de animais diabéticos promoveu ativação do inflamassoma em CMLV provenientes de animais C57Bl/6, mas não em CMLV provenientes de animais deficientes de NLRP3. Esta ativação foi associada ao aumento de EROs e influxo de cálcio. Essa mesma ativação também foi observada em células endoteliais. DNA mitocondrial de camundongos diabéticos também reduziu a dilatação dependente do endotélio em artérias mesentéricas, o que foi associado à geração de EROs e ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3. Pacientes diabéticos apresentaram aumento do DNA mitocondrial circulante e ativação de caspase-1 e IL-1? no soro. Os resultados demonstram que o DNA mitocondrial pancreático de animais diabéticos promove ativação, em CMLV e células endoteliais, do inflamassoma NLRP3 através do aumento no influxo de cálcio e da geração de EROs, contribuindo para o processo de disfunção endotelial. A deficiência de NLRP3 protege os animais diabéticos contra os danos vasculares inflamatórios e disfunção endotelial. / Diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with several micro and macrovascular complications directly related to cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged exposure to hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are considered the main factors involved in these complications, which are exacerbated by endothelial dysfunction. Inflammatory mediators potentially contribute to the development of endothelial dysfunction by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, stimulate the transcription of pro-inflammatory factors. Specific receptors such as NLRs (NOD-like receptors) contribute to the onset of inflammatory processes by the activation of a multiprotein complex called inflammasome. The NLRP3 inflammasome regulates the activation of caspase-1 and the proteolytic processing of pro-IL-1? and pro-IL-18 precursors into mature cytokines. Several mediators, such as ROS and mitochondrial DNA activate the NLRP3 inflammasome. Considering that it is not clear whether NLRP3 and mitochondrial DNA contribute to diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction, we hypothesized that the genetic deficiency of the NLRP3 confers resistance to vascular inflammatory processes in animals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and that mitochondrial DNA contributes to vascular activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and endothelial dysfunction. C57B1/6 and NLRP3 knockout mice were treated with vehicle or streptozotocin to induce T1D. Functional vascular parameters were determined in resistance mesenteric arteries. Cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and endothelial cells were used to determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation by mitochondrial DNA. ROS generation was evaluated by dihydroethidium fluorescence and by chemiluminescence for lucigenin. Caspase-1 and IL-1? activation was evaluated by western blot. Calcium influx was determined by fluorescence and mitochondrial DNA by mRNA expression of mitochondrial components. Diabetes reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in C57B1/6, but not in NLRP3 knockout mice. Diabetic mice presented increased vascular NLRP3 receptor expression, increased caspase-1 and IL-1? activation, as well as ROS and hydrogen peroxide generation, events that were mildly observed in NLRP3 knockout mice. There was a reduction in the vascular protein expression of Nox4 (NADPH oxidase 4) as wellas in the gene expression of VCAM-1 (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1) and ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1) in NLRP3 knockout animals. There was an increase in cytosolic mitochondrial DNA release in pancreas from diabetic animals. Mitochondrial DNA from the pancreas of diabetic mice induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation in VSMC from C57B1/6 mice, but not in VSMC from NLRP3 knockout mice. This activation was associated with increased levels of ROS and calcium influx and was also detected in endothelial cells. Mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice also decreased endothelium-dependent dilation in mesenteric arteries, which was associated with ROS generation and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Diabetic patients exhibited increased serum mitochondrial DNA and caspase-1 and IL-1? activation. The results demonstrate that pancreatic mitochondrial DNA from diabetic mice activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in VSMC and endothelial cells by increasing calcium influx and ROS generation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction. NLRP3 deficiency prevents diabetes-related vascular inflammatory damage and endothelial dysfunction.