L'inflammation joue un rôle clé dans de nombreuses pathologies, telles que les maladies inflammatoires chroniques, les désordres métaboliques et le cancer. L'un de ses médiateurs le plus puissant est l'interleukine-1β (IL-1β), qui est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire participant à tous les stades de l'inflammation et de l'immunité. Son activation est régulée par un complexe multi-protéique nommé inflammasome, dont la caspase-1 active en découlant est responsable du clivage et de la maturation de l'IL-1β. Huit types d'inflammasomes activant et clivant la pro-caspase-1 ont été identifiés et contiennent tous la protéine ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD). Les inflammasomes partagent un signal intracellulaire commun et le mécanisme menant à leur assemblage et leur activation n'est pas totalement élucidé. L'utilisation de la lignée cellulaire humaine monocytaire, THP-1, différenciée en macrophages grâce à un ester de phorbol, le TPA, a permis la mise en place d'un modèle d'étude de modulateurs de l'inflammasome en conditions stériles. Ce modèle a permis l'étude des mécanismes impliqués suite à des signaux issus de l'inflammation chronique, tels que l'ATP et les espèces réactives de l'oxygène (ROS). Ce travail montre qu'il existe une synergie entre ATP et ROS, qui agissent grâce à une boucle d'activation impliquant probablement plusieurs inflammasomes, dont NLRP3. Des donneurs de NO connus (trinitrine et isosorbide dinitrate) ou nouveau (dérivé de purine) ont montré une activité anti-inflammatoire. D'autres composés ont été identifiés comme de potentiels inhibiteurs d'inflammasome (extraits de dattes et dérivé de purine portant un acide lipoïque)

Metal ions released from implantable biomaterials have been associated with adverse biological reactions that can limit implant longevity. Previous studies have shown that, in macrophages, Co2+, Cr3+, and Ni2+ can activate the NLR family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLPR3) inflammasome, which is responsible for interleukin(IL)-1β production through caspase-1. Furthermore, these ions are known to induce oxidative stress, and inflammasome priming is known to involve nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling. However, the mechanisms of inflammasome activation by metal ions remain largely unknown. The objectives of this thesis were to determine if, in macrophages: 1. IL-1β release induced by metal ions is caspase-1-dependent; 2. caspase-1 activation and IL-1β release induced by metal ions are oxidative stress-dependent; and 3. IL-1β release induced by metal ions is NF-κB signaling pathway-dependent. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed murine bone-marrow-derived macrophages were exposed to Co2+, Cr3+, or Ni2+, with or without an inhibitor of caspase-1, oxidative stress, or NF-κB. Culture supernatants were analyzed for active caspase-1 (immunoblotting) and/or IL-1β (ELISA). Overall, results showed that while both Cr3+ and Ni2+ may be inducing inflammasome activation, Cr3+ is likely a more potent activator, acting through oxidative stress and the NF-κB signaling pathway. Further elucidation of the activation mechanisms may facilitate the development of therapeutic approaches to modulate the inflammatory response to metal ions, and thereby increase implant longevity.

Embora já tenha sido comprovada a ação adjuvante da SBA-15, pouco se sabe sobre o seu mecanismo molecular que leva a modulação positiva da resposta imunológica. Foi avaliada a ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3, sobre estímulos de SBA-15, em macrófagos de camundongos C57BL/6. Como parâmetro dessa ativação, foi analisada a produção de IL-1β por ELISA. A SBA-15 foi capaz de induzir a produção de IL-1β a níveis semelhantes quando comparado com um agonista de NLRP3 (Nano-SiO2), sugerindo a ativação do inflamassoma. Para avaliar o envolvimento da caspase-1, nos resultados obtidos com a SBA-15, os macrófagos foram estimulados com sílica na presença do inibidor de caspase-1, e como esperado, a produção de IL-1β foi restaurada para o seu nível basal. A ativação do inflamassoma, por estímulos da SBA-15, parece ser parcialmente dependente da fagocitose e da produção das espécies reativas do oxigênio. Além disso, foi visto que a SBA-15 não induz a produção de IL-6, confirmando que essa sílica está envolvida na via do inflamassoma e não em outras vias, como por exemplo, NF-κB. / Although it has already been proven adjuvant action of SBA-15, little is known about its molecular mechanism leading to positive modulation of the immune response. NLRP3 inflammasome activation was evaluated on SBA-15 stimulation in C57BL/6 mice macrophages. As this parameter activation, it analyzed the production of IL-1β by ELISA. The SBA-15 was able to induce the production of IL-1β at levels similar when compared to an agonist of NLRP3 (Nano-SiO2), suggesting the activation of the inflammasome. To assess the involvement of caspase-1, the results obtained with SBA-15, the macrophages were stimulated with silica in the presence of caspase-1 inhibitor, and as expected, IL-1β production was restored to its baseline level. Activation of the inflammasome, by stimuli of SBA-15, appears to be partly dependent on phagocytosis and production of reactive oxygen species. In addition, it was seen that the SBA-15 does not induce IL-6 production, confirming that silica is involved inflammasome the path of and not in other ways, eg, NF-κB.

Dermatofitoses são infecções fúngicas de natureza crônica cujo principal agente etiológico é Trichophyton rubrum. Apesar de sua alta ocorrência mundial, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos imunológicos envolvidos nestas infecções. Neste trabalho investigamos a participação de duas classes de receptores de imunidade inata (NLRs e CLRs) na resposta a T.rubrum e avaliamos o perfil proteômico de macrófagos quando estimulados com o fungo. Observamos que T.rubrum foi capaz de induzir a produção de IL-1β dependente do inflamassomo NLRP3 e destacamos o papel da sinalização de IL-1 na modulação da resposta de IL-17. Determinamos os CLRs dectina-1 e dectina-2 como receptores essenciais na produção de citocinas inflamatórias e para o controle da infecção experimental. Curiosamente, a IL-17 e os linfócitos T e B foram dispensáveis para a eliminação do fungo. Também identificamos a proteína CLEC1A como uma novo receptor para fungos, envolvido no reconhecimento de glicolipídeos de T.rubrum. Por fim, a análise proteômica de macrofagos revelou a vimentina e a plastina-2 como duas proteínas potencialmente envolvidas na relação patógeno-hospedeiro. / Dermatophytosis are chronic fungal infections whose main causative agent is Trichophyton rubrum. Despite its high incidence worldwide, the immunological mechanisms underlying these infections remain largely unknown. Here we investigated the involvement of two classes of innate immune receptors (NLRs and CLRs) in the reponse to T.rubrum and performed a proteomic profiling of macrophages upon T.rubrum stimulation. We observed that T.rubrum was able to drive NLRP3 inflammasome-derived IL-1β production and highlighted IL-1 signaling as an important component in the shaping of the IL-17 response. We defined the CLRs dectin-1 and dectin-2 as key receptors for the induction of inflammatory cytokines and for the infection control in the in vivo settings. Curiously, IL-17 cytokines and T and B lymphocytes were dispensable for fungal clearance. In addition, we uncovered CLEC1A as a new receptor in fungal sensing, involved in the recognition of T.rubrum glycolipids. Finally, the proteomic analysis revealed Vimentin and Plastin-2 as two proteins potentially involved in the host-pathogen interaction.

A inibição crônica do óxido nítrico com Nw-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME), associado à sobrecarga de sal, leva a hipertensão grave, albuminúria, glomeruloesclerose, isquemia glomerular e fibrose intersticial, caracterizando um modelo de doença renal crônica (DRC). Achados anteriores deste laboratório e de outros sugerem que a ativação de pelo menos duas vias da imunidade inata, TLR4/NF-kB e NLRP3/IL-1beta, ocorre em vários modelos experimentais de DRC e que a progressão da lesão renal pode ser atenuada com a inibição destas vias. No presente estudo, investigamos se a ativação da imunidade inata, através da via TLR4/NF-kB ou NLRP3/IL-1beta, está envolvida na patogênese da lesão renal em outro modelo de DRC, o de inibição crônica do NO com sobrecarga de sal. Ratos Munich-Wistar machos adultos receberam sobrecarga de sal (2% Na+ na dieta e 0,5% Na+ na água do bebedouro) e L-NAME (32 mg/Kg/dia) dissolvido na salina do bebedouro (Grupo HS+N) ou tratados com alopurinol (Alo, 36 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), usado como inibidor de NLRP3 (grupo HS+N+Alo) ou tratados com ditiocarbamato de pirrolidina (PDTC, 60 mg/Kg/dia, v.o), um inibidor de NF-kB (Grupo HS+N+PDTC). Após 4 semanas, os ratos HS+N desenvolveram hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e lesão renal, juntamente com inflamação renal, estresse oxidativo e ativação de ambas as vias NLRP3/IL1-beta e TLR4/NF-kB. Alo reduziu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu a via NLRP3/IL-1beta. Esses efeitos foram associados à atenuação da hipertensão arterial, albuminúria e inflamação/fibrose intersticial, mas não à lesão glomerular. O PDTC diminuiu o ácido úrico renal e inibiu as vias NLRP3 e NF-kB, promovendo um efeito antiinflamatório e nefroprotetor mais eficiente que o Alo. As vias NLRP3/IL-1beta e TLR4/NF-kB atuam paralelamente para promover lesão/inflamação renal e devem ser simultaneamente inibidas para obter nefroproteção maior nesse modelo de DRC / Nitric oxide inhibition with Nk-nitroargininemethylester (L-NAME) along with salt overload leads to severe hypertension, albuminuria, glomerulosclerosis, glomerular ischemia and collapse, together with interstitial fibrosis, characterizing a model of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Previous findings of this laboratory and elsewhere suggest that activation of at least two pathways of innate immunity, TLR4/NF-kB and NLRP3 inflammasome/IL-1beta, occurs in several experimental models of CKD, and that progression of renal injury can be slowed with inhibition of these pathways. In the present study, we investigated whether activation of innate immunity, through either the TLR4/NFkB or NLRP3/IL-1beta pathway, is involved in the pathogenesis of renal injury in yet another CKD model, chronic NO inhibition with salt overload. Adult male Munich-Wistar rats receiving L-NAME in drinking water and salt overload (Group HS+N) were treated with Allopurinol (ALLO), used as an NLRP3 inhibitor (Group HS+N+ALLO), or PyrrolidineDithiocarbamate (PDTC) a NF-kB inhibitor (Group HS+N+PDTC). After 4 wks, HS+N rats developed hypertension, albuminuria and renal injury, along with renal inflammation, oxidative stress and activation of both the NLRP3/IL1-beta and TLR4/NF-kB pathways. ALLO lowered renal uric acid and inhibited the NLRP3 pathway. These effects were associated with amelioration of hypertension, albuminuria and interstitial inflammation/fibrosis, but not glomerular injury. PDTC lowered renal uric acid and inhibited both the NLRP3 and NF-kB pathways, promoting a more efficient anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective effect than ALLO. NLRP3/IL-1beta and TLR4/NF-kB act in parallel to promote renal injury/inflammation and must be simultaneously inhibited for best nephroprotection

Le développement de la réponse immunitaire innée de l’hôte au cours des infections respiratoires nécessite la mise en place rapide d'un réseau moléculaire et cellulaire relativement complexe ayant pour but de contrôler la croissance microbienne ainsi que permettre son éradication. Dans certaines circonstances, et malgré l’existence de vaccins et d'antibiotiques efficaces, l’infection par Streptococcus pneumoniae peut aboutir à des pathologies graves telles qu'une pneumonie, une méningite et/ou une septicémie. Ainsi, à l'heure actuelle, les maladies associées au pneumocoque sont encore loin d'être sous contrôle. Dans ce contexte, une meilleure compréhension de la réponse immunitaire innée de l’hôte contre ce pathogène est nécessaire.Mes travaux de thèse ont permis pour la première fois de mettre en évidence la fonctionnalité et la relevance biologique de l’inflammasome NLRP3 au sein des neutrophiles pulmonaires in vivo dans un modèle d’infection respiratoire par S. pneumoniae.Ainsi, de façon inattendue, les neutrophiles jouent un rôle accessoire original à des temps précoces de l’infection via leur capacité à produire de l’IL-1β. Cette synthèse protéique est possible grâce à la combinaison de 2 signaux à la fois dérivés de l’hôte (TNF-α des macrophages alvéolaires) et de la bactérie (toxine). Ces deux signaux permettent l’assemblage et l’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 neutrophilique. D’un point de vue translationnel, nous avons été capables de démontrer un mécanisme similaire avec des neutrophiles humains.Cette production d’IL-1β par les neutrophiles participe à l’activation des lymphocytes T γδ producteurs d’IL-17; une cytokine essentielle dans le contrôle de l’infection bactérienne via sa capacité à induire rapidement le recrutement d’une deuxième vague de neutrophiles participant directement à l’élimination et la clairance bactérienne.Sur la base de ces travaux fondamentaux, nous avons émis l’hypothèse qu’une augmentation du pool de cellules innées sécrétrices d’IL-17A pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique sur le contrôle d’une infection respiratoire à pneumocoque. Ainsi via l’administration prophylactique et locale d’IL-7, nous avons été capables d’augmenter la fréquence et le nombre de lymphocytes innés producteurs d’IL-17A résultant en un meilleur contrôle de la charge bactérienne pathogène associée à une augmentation du recrutement neutrophilique. A ce stade, ces résultats encourageants, nous pousse à mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires et cellulaires associés à cet effet dans l’éventualité de proposer à terme une nouvelle approche thérapeutique dans le contrôle des infections respiratoires pulmonaires basée sur la manipulation de la biologie de l’IL-7. / The mounting of an appropriate host innate immune response in the lungs requires the rapid establishment of a complex cellular and molecular networking that allows the containment and clearance of pathogens during respiratory infections. Both neutrophils and γδT cells are central players in the host response during mucosal infections. Using a model of invasive pneumococcal disease, we illustrated a role for Interleukin-17A in controlling neutrophil recruitment, bacterial loads and survival. Following Streptococcus pneumoniae infection, we defined pulmonary γδT cells, especially the lung resident Vγ6Vδ1+ subset, as the primary source of IL-17A in an IL-23/IL- 1β-dependent manner. Using gene-targeted mice, we demonstrated that γδT cells largely contributed to neutrophilia and to the control of the pathology. Furthermore, we now defined a second and unexpected early role for neutrophils as accessory cells in γδT17 cell activation through IL-1β secretion. Neutrophil-derived IL-1β was dependent on NLRP3 inflammasome activity and required alveolar macrophage-secreted TNF-α for priming and bacterial pneumolysin for NLRP3- dependent caspase-1 activation. This report thus brings to light the sequential molecular/cellular events leading to γδT17 cell activation and highlights the existence of a biologically relevant and fully functional NLRP3 inflammasome in pulmonary neutrophils that regulates a key immune axis in the development of protective innate response to respiratory bacterial infection.Based on these observations, we hypothesized that an increase in the pool of IL-17A-producing innate-like T lymphocytes might play a protective role during pneumococcal infection. As recently suggested, we demonstrated that intranasal IL-7/M25 complex administration into naïve mice allowed the expansion of the cellular pool of innate immune cells presenting a Th17-like phenotype in the lungs especially T cells. Moreover, we showed during S. pneumoniae infection that prophylactic IL-7/M25 treatment increased the capacity of Vγ6Vδ1+ T cells to produce IL-17A. Interestingly, this phenotype led to higher neutrophil recruitment and a better control of bacterial burden in the lungs as well as systemic dissemination. Thus, we report a critical role of IL-7 in creating an IL-17-enriched microenvironment which improves the early development of host innate immune response to respiratory bacterial infection. This observation might pave the way to the development of future innovative cytokine/cell-based strategies against Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Orientador: Ronei Luciano Mamoni / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T05:56:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Castro_LiviaFurquimde_M.pdf: 5966667 bytes, checksum: bd25c56ae25a8825069884bedd9ca8ce (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: Diversos estudos demonstram que a resposta inflamatória é de extrema importância para o controle da Paracoccidioidomicose (PCM). Essa resposta inflamatória é iniciada pelo reconhecimento das células fúngicas por receptores expressos por células do sistema imunológico inato. Dentre esses receptores, o NLRP3 foi associado com o reconhecimento de fungos patogênicos em modelos experimentais, atuando em conjunto com o TLR2 e a dectina-1. O NLRP3 atua na formação de um complexo multiproteico denominado inflamassoma, o qual ativa a caspase-1, que é responsável pela produção das formas ativas de duas importantes citocinas inflamatórias: a IL-1? e a IL-18. Esse estudo teve por objetivo investigar o envolvimento do NLRP3 na ativação da resposta inflamatória de macrófagos e células dendríticas humanas (DCs) derivadas de monócitos em resposta ao Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb), além de avaliar a participação do NLRP3 na indução da resposta imunológica adaptativa. Nossos resultados demonstraram que células de lesões de pacientes com PCM (mucosa oral ou linfonodos) apresentam produção de IL-1beta, IL-18 e IL-37 e que macrófagos dessas lesões são positivos para Caspase-1 e NLRP3. Também fomos capazes de demonstrar que o reconhecimento de células leveduriformes por DCs e macrófagos humanos leva à ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 e consequente produção de IL-1 e IL-18. Esse reconhecimento envolve a participação de receptores de superfície (TLR2 e Dectina-1), sendo que a produção dessas citocinas é dependente da sinalização via dectina-1 e fosforilação da proteína Syk. Além disso, observamos que a ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3, após o reconhecimento do fungo, envolve como principais mecanismos a produção de ROS e o efluxo de K+. Nossos dados também demonstraram que o inflamassoma NLRP3 é essencial para a diferenciação de células Th17 e Th1 e que sua inibição leva à um aumento de células Th2 e Treg. Em conjunto nossos dados indicam que a ativação do NLRP3 desempenha um papel importante, tanto na indução de uma resposta inflamatória inicial, quanto no desenvolvimento de uma resposta adquirida que pode ser associada à resistência à infecção pelo P. brasiliensis / Abstract: Several studies have shown that the inflammatory response is crucial for the control of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM). This inflammatory response is initiated by the recognition of fungal yeast cells by receptors expressed by cells of the innate immune system. Among these receptors, NLRP3 was associated with the recognition of pathogenic fungi in experimental models, working in conjunction with TLR2 and dectin-1. The NLRP3 acts forming a multiproteic complex called inflammasome, which activates caspase-1, and the production of the active forms of two important cytokines: IL-1? and IL-18. This study aimed to investigate the involvement of NLRP3 activation in the inflammatory response of macrophages and human dendritic cells (DCs) derived from monocytes, in response to Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb), and to evaluate the participation of NLRP3 in the induction of the subsequent adaptive immune response. Our results demonstrated that cells of lesions from PCM patients (oral mucosa and lymph nodes) express IL-1beta, IL-18 and IL-37, and that macrophages in these lesions are positive for caspase-1 and NLRP3. We were also able to demonstrate that the recognition of Pb yeast cells by human macrophages and DCs leads to the NLRP3 inflammasome activation and production of IL-1 and IL-18. This recognition involves the participation of surface receptors (TLR2 and Dectin-1), and the production of these cytokines was dependent on signaling via dectin-1 and phosphorylation of Syk. In addition, we observed that the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, after recognition of the fungus, involves as main mechanisms the ROS production and the K+ efflux. Our data also demonstrate that the NLRP3 inflammasome are essential for the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells and its inhibition leads to an increased frequency of Th2 and Treg cells. Taken together our data indicated that activation of NLRP3 present an important role in both the induction of an initial inflammatory response, and in the development of an acquired immune response, which can be associated with the resistance to the P. brasiliensis infection / Mestrado / Ciencias Biomedicas / Mestra em Ciências Médicas

La dégénérescence maculaire liée à l’âge (DMLA), une maladie neurodégénérative de la rétine, est considérée comme la principale cause de perte de vision chez les personnes âgées. Le CD36 est un récepteur éboueur (scavenger) exprimé à la surface des phagocytes mononucléés et de l’épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (EPR), qui agit également comme corécepteur de l’hétérodimère des récepteurs de type Toll-like (TLR) 2/6 dans l’induction de l’inflammation. Dans la DMLA, l’activation du CD36 favorise l’internalisation des lipides oxydés par les cellules de l’EPR, le recrutement et l’accumulation des phagocytes mononucléés (microglie, monocytes/macrophages), ainsi que l’induction de la réponse inflammatoire au niveau sous-rétinien. L’identification du CD36 comme récepteur de peptides synthétiques de la famille des sécrétines de l’hormone de croissance (GHRPs) par notre laboratoire, nous a conduit au développement de ligands plus sélectifs pour ce récepteur, qui ont été étudiés dans le contexte des maladies inflammatoires chroniques liées aux macrophages telle que l’athérosclérose. Étant donné les similitudes observées entre la pathologie de l’athérosclérose et de la DMLA, nous avons émis l’hypothèse selon laquelle les azapeptides, comme ligands du CD36, auraient des effets protecteurs contre la DMLA en modulant la réponse inflammatoire. Ainsi, l’objectif général de ce projet de doctorat était d’évaluer les effets anti-inflammatoires et immunomodulateurs des azapeptides, comme ligands du CD36, et d’élucider leurs mécanismes d’action au niveau des macrophages ainsi que dans des modèles murins de DMLA. Le premier objectif spécifique de cette thèse était de déterminer l’effet de l’azapeptide MPE-001 dans la modulation de la réponse inflammatoire cellulaire médiée par le TLR2 et les voies de signalisation associées. Pour ce faire, des macrophages péritonéaux de souris C57BL/6 ou déficientes en Cd36 (Cd36-/-) ont été stimulés avec des agonistes du TLR2. Le traitement avec le MPE-001 a induit une diminution significative de la production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires, tels que le TNFa, l’IL-6, l’IL-12 et l’IL-1b et la chimiokine CCL2, de même qu’une inhibition des voies de signalisation nuclear factor kB (NFkB), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) et P38. Ce premier objectif nous a permis de mettre en évidence les effets anti-inflammatoires du MPE-001 et son mécanisme d’action, en modulant la réponse inflammatoire médiée par l’hétérodimère TLR2/6. Afin de déterminer les effets du MPE-001 sur la modulation de la réponse inflammatoire chez un modèle murin de DMLA, les souris C57BL/6, Cd36-/-, Cx3Cr1-/- et Cx3Cr1-/-/Cd36-/- ont été soumises à un stress photo-oxydatif induit par la lumière bleue pendant 5 jours. Une journée après le début de l’illumination, les souris ont reçu une injection s.c. de MPE-001 répétée pendant 7 jours. Le modèle murin de Cx3Cr1-/- est connue pour exacerber la réponse inflammatoire et induire l’accumulation de phagocytes mononucléés, plus particulièrement les microglies dans la rétine. Les montages à plat des coupes des yeux prélevés ont montré que le traitement au MPE-001 a engendré une diminution importante de 60% de l’accumulation de phagocytes mononucléés dans l’espace sous-rétinien, de même qu’une diminution des marqueurs inflammatoires (iNOS, IL-12), ainsi que la préservation de l’intégrité et de la fonction des photorécepteurs. Ce deuxième objectif nous a permis de démontrer les effets in vivo du MPE-001, en entraînant une diminution de l’accumulation de phagocytes mononucléés sous-rétiniens et la préservation des photorécepteurs. Étant donné les effets inhibiteurs du MPE-001 sur la sécrétion d’IL-1b, notre troisième objectif était d’investiguer l’effet du MPE-001 sur la régulation de l’inflammasome au niveau des macrophages. Nous avons montré que le MPE-001 entraînait une diminution de la réponse inflammatoire en inhibant la sécrétion d’IL-1b au niveau des macrophages, tout en diminuant l’expression de nucleotide-binding domain leucin-rich repeat and pyrin-containing receptor 3 (NLRP3) et de la caspase-1. Ce troisième objectif nous a permis de montrer que le MPE-001 a modulé le profil inflammatoire des macrophages en atténuant l’inflammasome NLRP3. Étant donné que le phénotype des macrophages est régulé par leur métabolisme, notre 4e et dernier objectif était de déterminer si les effets anti-inflammatoires du MPE-001 pouvaient influencer la polarisation des macrophages. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé un modèle de bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) induits en phénotype pro-inflammatoire M1 ou anti-inflammatoire M2. Bien que le MPE-001 n’ait eu aucune influence sur les marqueurs de surfaces phénotypiques, nous avons montré que ce dernier induisait un changement métabolique des macrophages pro-inflammatoires M1, en inhibant la glycolyse et en favorisant la phosphorylation oxydative, de façon dépendante du récepteur nucléaire peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ). En conclusion, les travaux de cette thèse ont montré que l’azapeptide MPE-001 possède de puissants effets anti-inflammatoires et immunomodulateurs au niveau des macrophages dans un contexte d’inflammation rétinienne, pouvant constituer une nouvelle approche thérapeutique prometteuse pour le traitement de la DMLA. / Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a neurodegenerative disease of the retina, is considered to be the main cause of vision loss in the elderly. CD36 is a scavenger receptor expressed on the surface of mononuclear phagocytes and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which also acts as a co-receptor for the Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2/6 heterodimer in the induction of inflammation. In AMD, CD36 activation promotes the internalization of oxidized lipids by RPE cells, the recruitment and accumulation of mononuclear phagocytes (microglia, monocytes / macrophages), as well as the induction of the inflammatory response at the subretinal level. The identification of CD36 as a receptor for synthetic peptides of the growth hormone releasing-peptides (GHRP) by our laboratory, led us to the development of more selective ligands for this receptor, which have been studied in the context of chronic inflammatory diseases related to macrophages such as atherosclerosis. Given the similarities observed between the pathology of atherosclerosis and AMD, we hypothesized that azapeptides, as CD36 ligands, protect against AMD by modulating the inflammatory response. Thus, the general objective of this doctoral project was to characterize the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of azapeptides, as CD36 ligands, and to elucidate their mechanisms of action on macrophages as well as in murine models of AMD. The first specific objective of this thesis was to determine the effect of the azapeptide MPE-001 in the modulation of the cellular TLR2-mediated inflammatory response and the associated signaling pathways. To do so, peritoneal macrophages from C57BL/6 or Cd36-deficient (Cd36-/-) mice were stimulated with TLR2 agonists. Treatment with MPE-001 induced a significant decrease in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNFa, IL-6, IL-12 and IL-1b and the chemokine CCL2, as well as inhibition of the nuclear factor k B (NF kB), N-terminal c-Jun kinase (JNK) and P38 signaling pathways. This first objective allows us to highlight the anti-inflammatory effects of MPE-001 and its mechanism of action, by modulating the inflammatory response mediated by the TLR2/6 heterodimer. In order to determine the effects of MPE-001 on the modulation of the inflammatory response in a mouse model of AMD, the murine models C57BL/6, Cd36-/-, Cx3Cr1-/- and Cx3xr1-/-/Cd36-/- were subjected to photo-oxidative stress induced by blue light for 5 days. One day after the start of illumination, the mice received a repeated s.c. injection of MPE-001 for 7 days. The mouse model of Cx3Cr1-/- is known to exacerbate the inflammatory response and induce the accumulation of mononuclear phagocytes, more specifically microglia, in the retina. Flat mounts from collected eyes showed that MPE-001 treatment caused a significant 60% decrease in the accumulation of mononuclear phagocytes in the subretinal space, as well as a reduction in inflammatory markers (iNOS, IL-12), with the preservation of photoreceptor integrity and function. This second objective allows us to demonstrate the in vivo effects of MPE-001, leading to a decrease in the accumulation of sub-retinal mononuclear phagocytes and the preservation of photoreceptors. Given the inhibitory effects of MPE-001 on IL-1b secretion, our third objective was to investigate the effect of MPE-001 on inflammasome regulation in macrophages. We have shown that MPE-001 decreases the inflammatory response by inhibiting the secretion of IL-1b in macrophages, while decreasing the expression of nucleotide-binding domain leucin-rich repeat and pyrin-containing receptor 3 (NLRP3) and caspase-1. This third objective allows us to show that MPE-001 modulates the inflammatory profile of macrophages by attenuating the NLRP3 inflammasome. Since macrophage phenotypes are regulated by their metabolism, our fourth and final objective was to determine whether the anti-inflammatory effects of MPE-001 could influence the polarization of macrophages. To do so, we used a bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) model induced to pro-inflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. Although MPE-001 had no influence on phenotypic markers, we have shown that the latter induces a metabolic shift of the pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages, by inhibiting glycolysis and promoting oxidative phosphorylation of macrophages, in a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-g)-dependent manner. In conclusion, the work conducted in this thesis showed that the azapeptide MPE-001 has powerful anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects on macrophages in a context of retinal inflammation, which could constitute a promising new therapeutic approach for the treatment of AMD.

Macrophages are innate immune cells responsible for engulfing microbes and cell debris through phagocytosis and orchestrating immune responses to maintain homeostasis. While conducting immune surveillance over all types of organs and tissues, macrophages face inherently heterogeneous microenvironments with unique biophysical features. For instance, microglia residing in the brain, Kupffer cells living in the skin and bone osteoclasts are exposed to very distinct tissue stiffnesses. Despite the research done in the last decade clearly indicates that macrophages are sensitive to physical factors, how mechanical cues modulate their inflammatory response remains poorly understood. The present study aims at investigating how microenvironment stiffness influences the pro-inflammatory behaviour of macrophages. Besides characterising the regulatory effect on pro-inflammatory gene expression and cytokine production, this work examines the impact of stiffness on the inflammasome, one of the main macrophage signalling platforms. For this, an in vitro system based in 2D polyacrylamide hydrogels whose stiffness can be independently tuned was established. Using substrates with an elastic moduli between 0.2 and 33.1 kPa, bone marrow-derived macrophages adopted a less spread and rounder morphology on compliant compared to stiff polyacrylamide. Upon priming with lipopolysaccharide, the expression levels of the gene encoding for TNF-α were higher on more compliant hydrogels, yet there were no significant differences in the expression of other major pro-inflammatory genes. Additionally stimulating macrophages with the ionophore nigericin revealed higher secreted protein levels of IL-1β and IL-6 on compliant substrates. Interestingly, macrophages challenged on compliant polyacrylamide also displayed an enhanced formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome as well as increased levels of pyroptotic cell death. The upregulation of inflammasome assembly on compliant hydrogels was not primarily attributed to the reduced cell spreading, since spatially confining cells on micropatterns led to a decrease of inflammasome-positive cells compared to well-spread cells. Finally, interfering with actomyosin contractility diminished the differences in inflammasome formation between compliant and stiff substrates. In summary, these results show that substrate stiffness affects the pro-inflammatory response of macrophages and for the first time describe that the NLRP3 inflammasome is one of the signalling components affected by stiffness mechanosensing. The work presented here expands our understanding of how microenvironment stiffness affects macrophage behaviour and which elements of their machinery might contribute to integrate mechanical cues into the regulation of their inflammatory functions. The onset of pathological processes or the implant of foreign bodies represent immune challenges in which macrophages can face a mechanically changing environment. Therefore, a better insight on how macrophages detect and process biophysical signals could potentially provide a basis for new strategies to modulate inflammatory responses.:INTRODUCTION 1.1 Macrophage cell biology 1.1.1 The origin of macrophages 1.1.2 The macrophage: a swiss army knife 1.1.3 The macrophage pro-inflammatory response 1.2 Immunobiophysics: the force of the immune system 1.2.1 Exertion of immune cell forces 1.2.2 Immune cell mechanosensing 1.3 Cellular mechanosensing and mechanotransduction 1.3.1 Cell adhesions to the extracellular matrix 1.3.2 Nuclear mechanotransduction 1.3.3 Membrane mechanosensing elements 1.4 Macrophage mechanosensing AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE THESIS RESULTS 3.1 Morphol. characterisation of macrophages cultured on substrates of varying stiffness 3.1.1 BMDMs adhere and can be cultured on polyacrylamide hydrogels 3.1.2 Macrophage morphology is influenced by substrate stiffness 3.1.3 PEG-Hep hydrogels induce similar morphological differences as PAA substrates but do not constitute a suitable macrophage culture platform 3.1.4 Substrate stiffness affects membrane architecture 3.2 Impact of substrate stiffness on the pro-inflammatory response of macrophages 3.2.1 The morphol. differences induced by different stiffness persist after macrophage priming 3.2.2 Tuning substrate stiffness does not cause major changes in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes 3.2.3 Lower substrate stiffness upregulates the secretion of the cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β 3.2.4 Stiffer substrates diminish macrophage pyroptotic cell death 3.2.5 Compliant substrates enhance NLRP3 inflammasome formation 3.3 Investigation of macrophage mechanotransducing elements 3.3.1 Limiting cell spreading alone does not recapitulate the effects induced by stiffness on inflammasome formation 3.3.2 Actomyosin contractility may play a role in transducing the mechanical cues given by substrate stiffness DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 4.1 Compliant substrates enhance the macrophage pro-inflammatory response 4.2 Substrate stiffness influences the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome 4.3 Exclusively altering cell spreading does not explain the differences induced by substrate stiffness 4.4 Actomyosin contractility as a potential macrophage mechanotransducer element 4.5 Potential impact of the study in the context of cancer 4.6 Potential impact of the study in the context of implant design 4.7 Conclusions of the study MATERIALS AND METHODS 5.1 Production of polyacrylamide (PAA) hydrogels 5.2 Production of polyethylenglycol-heparin (PEG-Hep) hydrogels 5.3 Mechanical characterisation of hydrogels and macrophages 5.4 Isolation and culture of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) 5.5 Fluorescence confocal microscopy 5.6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 5.7 Gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) 5.8 Cytokine quantification assays 5.9 Cell viability assay 5.10 Culture of BMDMs on micropatterns 5.11 Optical diffraction tomography (ODT) 5.12 Statistical analysis and data visualisation APPENDIX LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS / Als Teil des angeborenen Immunsystems sind Makrophagen dafür verantwortlich Pathogene und Zellrückstände durch Phagozytose zu beseitigen. Sie orchestrieren Immunantworten um homöostatische Bedingungen von Organen und Geweben aufrechtzuerhalten. Dabei sind sie extrem heterogenen Mikroumgebungen ausgesetzt, welche sich jeweils durch eine einzigartige Kombination von (bio)chemischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften, vor allem Gewebesteifigkeiten, auszeichnen. Dies veranschaulichen beispielsweise im Gehirn residierende Mikroglia, Kupffer-Zellen in der Haut und Osteoklasten in Knochen. Obwohl diverse Studien aus dem letzten Jahrzehnt eindeutig zeigen, dass Makrophagen auf mechanische Signale reagieren, ist der zugrunde liegende Mechanismus, wie diese Signale eine Entzündungsreaktion modulieren, noch immer unzureichend verstanden. Die vorliegende Studie beinhaltet die systematische Untersuchung, wie die Steifigkeit der Mikroumgebung das proinflammatorische Verhalten von Makrophagen beeinflusst. Neben der Charakterisierung der regulatorischen Wirkung auf die proinflammatorische Genexpression und Zytokinproduktion untersucht diese Arbeit auch den Einfluss der Steifigkeit auf das Inflammasom; eine der wichtigsten Signalplattformen für Makrophagen. Zu diesem Zweck wurde zunächst ein Zellkultursystem mit 2D-Polyacrylamid-Hydrogelen als Zellsubstrat entwickelt, bei dem das Elastizitätsmodul der Gelsubstrate gezielt eingestellt werden kann. Unter Verwendung von Substraten mit einem Elastizitätsmodul zwischen 0,2 kPa und 33,1 kPa zeigt die mikroskopische Analyse, dass aus Knochenmark stammende Makrophagen im Vergleich zu steifem Polyacrylamid eine weniger ausgebreitete und rundere Morphologie annehmen. Nach dem Primen mit Lipopolysaccharid waren die Expressionsniveaus des Gens, das für TNF-α kodiert, auf deformierbareren Hydrogelen höher, jedoch gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in der Expression anderer wichtiger pro-inflammatorischer Gene. Eine zusätzliche Stimulierung von Makrophagen mit dem Ionophor Nigericin bewirkte höhere sekretierte Proteinspiegel von IL-1β und IL-6 auf deformierbaren Substraten. Makrophagen, die deformierbarem Polyacrylamid ausgesetzt waren, zeigten auch eine verstärkte Bildung des NLRP3-Inflammasoms sowie ein erhöhtes Ausmaß an pyroptotischem Zelltod. Die Hochregulierung der Inflammasom-Assemblierung auf deformierbaren Hydrogelen wurde nicht primär auf die reduzierte Zellausbreitung zurückgeführt, da räumlich begrenzte Zellen auf Mikromustern zu einer Abnahme von Inflammasom-positiven Zellen im Vergleich zu stark ausgebreiteten Zellen führten. Schließlich verringerte eine Störung der Aktomyosin-Kontraktilität die Unterschiede in der Inflammasombildung zwischen deformierbaren und steifen Substraten. Zusammenfassend zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass die Substratsteifigkeit die proinflammatorische Reaktion von Makrophagen beeinflusst und beschreiben erstmalig, dass das NLRP3-Inflammasom eine der Signalkomponenten ist, die von der zellulären Steifheitswahrnehmung beeinflusst werden. Die hier vorgestellte Arbeit erweitert unser Verständnis davon, wie die Steifigkeit der Mikroumgebung das Verhalten von Makrophagen beeinflusst und welche Elemente ihrer Maschinerie dazu beitragen könnten mechanische Signale in die Regulierung ihrer Entzündungsfunktionen zu integrieren. Das Einsetzen pathologischer Prozesse oder die Implantation von Fremdkörpern stellen Immunherausforderungen dar, bei denen Makrophagen einer sich mechanisch verändernden Umgebung ausgesetzt sein können. Daher könnte ein besserer Einblick in die Art und Weise, wie Makrophagen biophysikalische Signale erkennen und verarbeiten, möglicherweise eine Grundlage für neue Strategien zur Modulation von Entzündungsreaktionen bieten.:INTRODUCTION 1.1 Macrophage cell biology 1.1.1 The origin of macrophages 1.1.2 The macrophage: a swiss army knife 1.1.3 The macrophage pro-inflammatory response 1.2 Immunobiophysics: the force of the immune system 1.2.1 Exertion of immune cell forces 1.2.2 Immune cell mechanosensing 1.3 Cellular mechanosensing and mechanotransduction 1.3.1 Cell adhesions to the extracellular matrix 1.3.2 Nuclear mechanotransduction 1.3.3 Membrane mechanosensing elements 1.4 Macrophage mechanosensing AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE THESIS RESULTS 3.1 Morphol. characterisation of macrophages cultured on substrates of varying stiffness 3.1.1 BMDMs adhere and can be cultured on polyacrylamide hydrogels 3.1.2 Macrophage morphology is influenced by substrate stiffness 3.1.3 PEG-Hep hydrogels induce similar morphological differences as PAA substrates but do not constitute a suitable macrophage culture platform 3.1.4 Substrate stiffness affects membrane architecture 3.2 Impact of substrate stiffness on the pro-inflammatory response of macrophages 3.2.1 The morphol. differences induced by different stiffness persist after macrophage priming 3.2.2 Tuning substrate stiffness does not cause major changes in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes 3.2.3 Lower substrate stiffness upregulates the secretion of the cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β 3.2.4 Stiffer substrates diminish macrophage pyroptotic cell death 3.2.5 Compliant substrates enhance NLRP3 inflammasome formation 3.3 Investigation of macrophage mechanotransducing elements 3.3.1 Limiting cell spreading alone does not recapitulate the effects induced by stiffness on inflammasome formation 3.3.2 Actomyosin contractility may play a role in transducing the mechanical cues given by substrate stiffness DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 4.1 Compliant substrates enhance the macrophage pro-inflammatory response 4.2 Substrate stiffness influences the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome 4.3 Exclusively altering cell spreading does not explain the differences induced by substrate stiffness 4.4 Actomyosin contractility as a potential macrophage mechanotransducer element 4.5 Potential impact of the study in the context of cancer 4.6 Potential impact of the study in the context of implant design 4.7 Conclusions of the study MATERIALS AND METHODS 5.1 Production of polyacrylamide (PAA) hydrogels 5.2 Production of polyethylenglycol-heparin (PEG-Hep) hydrogels 5.3 Mechanical characterisation of hydrogels and macrophages 5.4 Isolation and culture of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) 5.5 Fluorescence confocal microscopy 5.6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 5.7 Gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) 5.8 Cytokine quantification assays 5.9 Cell viability assay 5.10 Culture of BMDMs on micropatterns 5.11 Optical diffraction tomography (ODT) 5.12 Statistical analysis and data visualisation APPENDIX LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease largely due to lifestyle and nutritional imbalance, resulting in insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and vascular complications. Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a major cause of end-stage renal failure contributing to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Therapeutic options to prevent or reverse DKD progression are limited. Endothelial and glomerular filtration barrier (GFB) dysfunction and sterile inflammation are associated with DKD. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), originally identified as an innate immune mechanism to combat infection, have been implicated in sterile inflammatory responses in non-communicable diseases. However, the contribution of NETs in DKD remains unknown. Here, we show that biomarkers of NETs are increased in diabetic mice and diabetic patients and that these changes correlate with DKD severity. Mechanistically, NETs promote NLRP3 inflammasome activation and glomerular endothelial dysfunction under high glucose stress in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of NETs (PAD4 inhibitor) ameliorate endothelial dysfunction and renal injury in DKD. Taken together, NET-induced sterile inflammation promotes diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction, identifying a new pathomechanism contributing to DKD. Inhibition of NETs may be a promising therapeutic strategy in DKD.