No description available.

Inflammaging is a hallmark of human aging. Defined as low-grade, chronic inflammation, it is characterized by heightened proinflammatory cytokines in the blood and tissues and predicts morbidity and mortality. Despite this, the etiology of inflammaging and its role in infection have remained elusive, an issue this thesis addressed. First, we provided a comprehensive overview of an intranasal Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization model (Chapter 2). We described in detail the colonization technique, and demonstrated how to isolate and phenotype recruited cells, quantify bacterial load and measure production of immune mediators in the nasopharynx. Since both myeloid cell recruitment and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) production were increased following S. pneumoniae colonization with age, we investigated whether TNF directly augmented monocyte frequency (Chapter 3). TNF increased CCR2 expression on monocytes in old mice, leading to their enhanced egress from the bone marrow, resulting in enrichment of this population in the circulation. Monocyte numbers directly influenced plasma IL-6 levels, and this negatively impacted anti-bacterial responses, as monocyte blockade improved pneumococcal clearance in old mice. Lastly, to better understand the fundamental source of inflammaging, we studied the impact of the host microbiome on its development. This work was rooted in Elie Metchnikoff’s early predictions that leakage of intestinal bacterial products could dysregulate macrophage function, resulting in inflammation that would progress aging (Chapter 4). We showed that old mice had increased intestinal permeability, aberrant expression of cellular junction genes and increased microbial translocation from the gut to the blood. Germ-free mice lived longer than their conventionally colonized counterparts, and were protected from the development of inflammaging and defective macrophage function. Together, these studies resolve a major disparity in the field by demonstrating that systemic TNF production is initiated by increased levels of circulating bacterial products, driving functional defects in myeloid cells, which ultimately impairs anti-bacterial immunity. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy

Objective: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are increasing in adolescents and increase the risk for early-onset knee osteoarthritis (OA). Biomarkers can be a non-invasive measure to assess physiological properties following knee injury or trauma. The objective of this thesis was to i) perform a systematic review to determine the most studied biomarkers of knee healing following ACL reconstruction (ACLR), and age of these patients, and ii) explore the feasibility of measuring these biomarkers in adolescents with ACL injuries. Design: Studies were included if i) participants underwent ACLR, and ii) at least one biomarker of healing was measured. Participant age, sample(s) collected, and biomarker(s) studied were recorded. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), c-terminal crosslinking telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II) and procollagen type II collagen propeptide (PIICP) were then measured using ELISA in adolescents prior to ACLR in urine (u) and synovial fluid (sf). Spearman’s Rho (rs) coefficients were calculated to determine the association between uCTX-II/sfCTX-II, and uIL-6/sfIL-6. A ratio of PIICP: CTX-II was calculated to represent the ratio of cartilage synthesis to degradation. Results: The review produced six studies evaluating healing following ACLR. IL-6 and CTX-II were the most studied (3/6 studies), and only one study included adolescents (age 19.6±4.5). Due to multiple undetectable biomarker levels, we could only report rs for uCTX-II/sfCTX-II (rs = -.200, p-value = .800, n=4). We also reported a ratio for sfPIICP: sfCTX-II (23.06 ±19.23). Conclusion: Exploring biomarkers in adolescents was motivated by their unique physiology due to puberty, and this was the first study to do so. The findings from this pilot study indicate that further analysis is required to determine optimal sample preparation. This will allow for reliable results while studying the feasibility of these biomarkers during ACLR recovery. This insight can ensure more informed decision making by clinicians clearing patients for return-to-activity.

The adrenal cortex is a crucial endocrine gland in the mammalian stress response. In chronic inflammatory stress, cortisol is elevated whereas adrenal androgens are decreased. Furthermore, ACTH levels have poor correlation with the plasma cortisol in these conditions, thus suggesting that other factors are driving the stress response during chronic inflammatory stress. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), a cytokine which is released during chronic inflammatory stress, is assumed to be one such factor. Thus the biochemical pathways by which IL-6 increases cortisol release from the zona fasciculata (ZF), and decreases adrenal androgen release from the zona reticularis (ZR) were investigated. Since IL-6 activates AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle, AMPK was investigated for IL-6- induced effects in ZF and ZR tissue. The effects of AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure on the expression of the steroidogenic proteins, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), and on the steroidogenic nuclear factors steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) and adrenal hypoplasia congenita, critical region on the X chromosome, gene-1 (DAX-1) were investigated. AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure increased the expression of StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and decreased DAX-1 in the ZF. Meanwhile, AMPK activation and IL-6 exposure decreased the expression of StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and increased DAX-1 in the ZR. AMPK inhibition blocked the effects of AMPK activation and IL-6 on the ZF and ZR. Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) was the second biochemical intermediate studied since in other tissues AMPK activation increases the expression and phosphorylation of AP-1 subunits. IL-6 stimulation and AMPK activation increased the expression of the AP-1 subunits cFOS, cJUN, JUN B, and JUN D, while increasing the phosphorylation of cJUN in both the ZF and the ZR. These effects were blocked by AMPK inhibition. Inhibition of AP-1 leads to decreased StAR, P450scc, and SF-1, and increased DAX-1 in the ZF. Meanwhile, AP-1 inhibition leads to increased StAR, P450scc, SF-1, and decreased DAX-1 in the ZR. Therefore the AP-1 complex functions as a biochemical intermediate in the IL-6 and AMPK regulation of steroidogenic enzymes in the ZF and ZR. Overall, the results suggest that IL-6 activates AMPK, which increases the expression and phosphorylation of AP-1 subunits in the ZF and the ZR. However, increased AP-1 activation leads to increased StAR and P450scc in the ZF, but decreased StAR and P450scc in the ZR.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is synthesized in hepatocytes. The serum concentration of CRP increases dramatically during the acute phase response. In human hepatoma Hep3B cells, maximal CRP expression occurs in cells treated with the combination of IL-6 and IL-1β. IL-6 induces transcription of the CRP gene and IL-1β synergistically enhances the effects of IL-6. We investigated the role of IL-6-activated transcription factor STAT3, also known as STAT3α, in inducing CRP expression since we identified four consensus STAT3-binding sites centered at positions - 72, - 108, - 134 and - 164 on the CRP promoter. It has been shown previously that STAT3 binds to the site at - 108 and induces CRP expression. We found that STAT3 also bound to the other three sites, and several STAT3-containing complexes were formed at each site, suggesting the presence of STAT3 isoforms and additional transcription factors in the complexes. Mutation of the STAT3 sites at - 108, - 134 or - 164 resulted in decreased CRP expression in response to IL-6 and IL-1β treatment, although the synergy between IL-6 and IL-1β was not affected by the mutations. The STAT3 site at - 72 could not be investigated employing mutagenesis. We also found that IL-6 activated two isoforms of STAT3 in Hep3B cells: STAT3α which contains both a DNA-binding domain and a transactivation domain and STAT3β which contains only the DNA-binding domain. Taken together, these findings raise the possibility that IL-6 not only induces CRP expression but also regulates the induction of CRP expression by activating STAT3 isoforms and by utilizing all four STAT3 sites.

Weaning piglets are susceptible to the invasive Streptococcus (S.) suis infection, which can result in septicemia. The aim of this study was to investigate the cytokine profile induced upon S. suis infection of blood, to determine the cellular sources of those cytokines, and to study the potential effects of the induced cytokines on bacterial killing. We measured TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ, IL-17A and IL-10 after an experimental intravenous infection with S. suis serotype 2 in vivo, and analyzed whole blood, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and separated leukocytes to identify the cytokine-producing cell type(s). In addition, we used a reconstituted whole blood assay to investigate the effect of TNF-α on bacterial killing in the presence of different S. suis-specific IgG levels. An increase in IL-6 and IL-10, but not in IFN-γ or IL-17A, was observed in two of three piglets with pronounced bacteremia 16 to 20 h after infection, but not in piglets with controlled bacteremia. Our results confirmed previous findings that S. suis induces TNF-α and IL-6 and could demonstrate that TNF-α is produced by monocytes in vitro. We further found that IL-10 induction resulted in reduced secretion of TNF-α and IL-6. Rapid induction of TNF-α was, however, not crucial for in vitro bacterial killing, not even in the absence of specific IgG.

No description available.

<p>Atherosclerosis is a disease affecting the blood vessels that is inflammatory in nature, and plays an important role in cardiovascular disease (CVD), one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Oncostatin M (OSM), a member of the IL-6/gp130 cytokine family, has been implicated in atherosclerosis both in mouse models and in humans. OSM synergizes with other stimuli in various systems to regulate cells. Infectious pathogens as well as danger associated host molecules stimulate members of the innate immune system, including Toll-like Receptors (TLRs), to respond in a pro-inflammatory manner to cause cell activation and cytokine release. Experiments were performed to determine whether OSM and LPS (a TLR-4 ligand) synergize in regulation of vascular wall cells <em>in vitro</em>.</p> <p>Upon stimulation of Aortic Adventitial Fibroblasts from mice (MAAFs) and humans (HAoAFs) as well as Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells (HAoSMCs) with LPS in combination with OSM, it was determined that there was a synergistic increase in IL-6 and VEGF levels in the cell supernatants as measured by ELISA compared to either treatment alone. MAAFs were also able to synergistically express KC upon stimulation with LPS and OSM, while in HAoAFs and HAoSMCs, LPS induced IL-8 levels were supressed by OSM. These effects were unique to OSM among gp130 cytokine members, as treatment of these cells with LPS in combination with LIF, IL-6, IL-31, or IL-11 had no marked effects compared to LPS alone. Furthermore, MCP-1 steady state mRNA levels were elevated 6 hours post stimulation with LPS and OSM compared to either treatment alone in HAoAFs and HAoSMCs.</p> <p>While OSM did not appear to modulate TLR-4 expression, OSM treatment resulted in an increased phosphorylation signal in STAT-1,-3, and -5, as well as Akt in MAAFs and HAoAFs. In addition, combined LPS and OSM stimulation resulted in an increased phosphorylation signal of the MAPK p38 compared to either treatment alone. Furthermore, a neutralizing antibody to the OSMr-β was able to inhibit HAoAF IL-6 responses to PBMC conditioned medium. Together, these findings indicate that OSM and LPS can synergize <em>in vitro </em>to induce the expression of inflammatory factors in vascular wall cells, emphasizing the potential role of OSM, TLR-4 ligands, and adventitial fibroblasts in vascular inflammation.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

No description available.

Qualitativ unterschiedliche genomische und nichtgenomische Mechanismen vermitteln die starken anti-inflammatorischen und immunmdulatorischen Eigenschaften der Glucocorticoide (GC). Der genomisch vermittelte Mechanismus ist bereits gut untersucht und dokumentiert, während der nichtgenomisch vermittelte Mechanismen noch einen Gegenstand vielseitiger Untersuchungen darstellt. Wir haben uns daher die Frage gestellt, ob Beclometason und Clobetasol besonders geeignet für die topische Applikation sind, weil sie sich in ihrem Wirkungsspektrum von systemisch zu applizierenden GC wie Dexamethason unterscheiden. Wir verglichen dazu die Effekte auf den Sauerstoffverbrauch mittels der Clark-Elektrode (nichtspezifisch nichtgenomischer Mechanismus), auf die IL-6-Synthese mittels ELISA (genomischer Mechanismus) und auf die Apoptose mittels Durchflusszytometrie (nichtgenomischer und genomischer Mechanismus) in ruhenden und stimulierten humanen PBMC. Dabei zeigten Beclometason und Clobetasol in sehr niedrigen Konzentrationen (10-10, 10-8 M) einen stärkeren Effekt auf den Sauerstoffverbrauch, waren aber in hohen Konzentrationen (10-5, 10-4 M) weniger potent im Vergleich zu Dexamethason. Auch hinsichtlich ihrer genomischen Potenz waren die topischen GC in einer Konzentration von 10-10 M und 10-8 M effektiver als Dexamethason, in höheren Konzentrationen unterschieden sie sich aber nicht. Alle drei GC induzierten Apoptose konzentrationsabhängig und unterschieden sich nicht in Konzentrationen zwischen 10-8 M und 10-5 M. In einer Konzentration von 10-4 M war die Induktion von Apoptose durch die topischen GC in PBMC und Jurkat-T-Zellen aber signifikant stärker im Vergleich zu Dexamethason. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich topische und systemische GC in ihrer genomischen und nichtgenomischen Potenz signifikant unterscheiden. Es ist daher davon auszugehen, dass nichtgenomische Effekte eine deutlichere klinische Relevanz besitzen als bisher angenommen. / Several different genomic and non-genomic mechanisms mediate the important anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of glucocorticoids (GCs). The genomic effects are the most important while the clinical relevance of non-genomic actions is still a matter of debate. We therefore investigated whether beclomethasone and clobetasol are particularly suitable for topical application because they differ in their spectrum of activity from systemically administered GCs such as dexamethasone. We compared effects on oxygen consumption as measured with a Clark electrode (nonspecific non-genomic glucocorticoid effects), on interleukin-6 synthesis by means of ELISA (genomic effects) and on apoptosis using flow cytometry (non-genomic and genomic effects) in quiescent and mitogen-stimulated PBMCs. Beclomethasone and clobetasol had stronger effects on the oxygen consumption of quiescent and stimulated cells at lower concentrations (10-10, 10-8 M) but were less potent at higher concentrations (10-5, 10-4 M) in comparison with dexamethasone. Also in terms of genomic potency, topical GCs were more effective than dexamethasone at 10-10 M and 10-8 M but gave similar results at higher concentrations. The ability of all three GCs to induce apoptosis was found to be concentration-dependent and similar at concentrations between 10-8 and 10-5 M but, compared with 10-4 M dexamethasone, 10-4 M beclomethasone or clobetasol was significantly more effective at inducing apoptosis in both PBMCs and Jurkat T cells. These results show that systemic and topical GCs differ significantly in their ability to induce genomic and non-genomic effects. This suggests that non-genomic effects are more therapeutically relevant in certain clinical conditions than currently assumed.