Achieving global water sustainability through a resilient international legal architecture presents one of the most pressing challenges within our resource finite planet. A staggering 42 percent of the total land area of the earth is covered by transboundary river basins, where more than 40 percent of the global population lives and depends on the ecosystem services of the 286 transboundary river basins and 200 transboundary aquifers stretching across the political boundaries of 151 countries. There is already evidence of water resources becoming a source of conflict in many regions and constraining a whole myriad of securities – climate, human, environmental, food, economic, energy – on various levels of society. The international legal architecture to manage this critical natural resource is the overarching area of inquiry in this thesis, and requires improvement to address current and predicted future transboundary water challenges, conflicts and strengthen cooperation. Despite the establishment of around 690 river basin treaties, many of these agreements completely miss or provide unclear provisions on principles and rules of international water law. Until recently there was no legally binding global treaty on transboundary watercourses and customary international law has provided the default rules in the absence of agreements and facilitated the re-interpretation of older agreements in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Now there are potentially two global treaties, with the recent entry into force of the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention and the global opening up of the 1992 pan-regional United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Water Convention, to all UN member states. There is also a plethora of other international environmental legal and non-legally binding instruments, indirectly addressing international law relevant to transboundary watercourses and freshwater ecosystems. Legal regimes for the protection and use of international river basins cannot be interpreted and applied in isolation from other relevant norms of international environmental and general international law. This thesis seeks to understand the rising role and contribution of regional approaches relevant to international law on transboundary watercourses and freshwater ecosystems. More specifically it explores the contribution of the UNECE Water Convention and other relevant UNECE environmental instruments as a structurally distinctive ‘regime’. This thesis introduces a novel conception of a broader ‘UNECE water regime’ which includes the Water Convention, the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice (Aarhus Convention), the Convention on Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment (Espoo Convention), the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, as well as their protocols and non-binding instruments. This research demonstrates how these instruments and their institutions can be interpreted and understood to form a common framework of rules, principles and approaches which fills critical gaps in basin treaties, and collectively contributes to the clarification and development of international law on transboundary watercourses and freshwater ecosystems. This analysis also explores institutional interaction and coordination between and beyond the UNECE pan-regional agreements, as well as the role of soft law or non-binding instruments, and state and non-state actors in the regime. This thesis seeks to contribute to a more coherent understanding of the relationship between the UNECE water regime, international water law, international environmental law and general international law. The UNECE water regime has contributed to clarifying many of the cornerstone rules and principles of international water law and it is argued that the UNECE water regime is lex specialis, which can and mostly does go beyond the UN Watercourses Convention. The UNECE water regime has also arguably spearheaded a paradigm shift in international water law, which sees it moving beyond its historically predominant focus on issues of transboundary impact and utilisation towards a stronger ecosystem orientated approach to environmental protection and equitable use of transboundary river basins. This research identifies key elements of an ecosystem approach, drawing from international environmental and international water law and demonstrates how the ecosystem approach, including ecosystem services, as supported by the UNECE water regime, affects interpretation of international water law towards enhancing ecosystem protection and intra-state equity. This research also explores how the UNECE regime goes beyond what exists elsewhere in international law and international water law on public participation and access to justice. Finally, this research examines the contribution of the UNECE regime vis-à-vis international and European Union water law, across the spectrum of pan-European river basins, especially focusing on the Danube, Sava and Western Bug basins. The UNECE water regime is the most evolved pan-regional regime of its kind, providing ambitious detailed standards and clarification of rules and principles relevant to transboundary watercourses and freshwater ecosystems. It also provides a valuable model of institutional cooperation, progressively engaging state and non-state actors. As this regime takes steps towards realising its global ambition, with almost all instruments now open to all UN member states, and the recent accession by Chad to the Water Convention, this analysis demonstrates why this is predominantly a positive endeavour but also highlights potential challenges and hurdles. This research thus explores the implications and benefits of the UNECE’s rising role in strengthening the international legal architecture to protect the world’s fragile transboundary watercourses and freshwater ecosystems.

Submitted by Rosina Valeria Lanzellotti Mattiussi Teixeira (rosina.teixeira@unisantos.br) on 2016-04-13T17:27:28Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Fabio S. Bonachela.pdf: 962287 bytes, checksum: f6b9b2114655bf3914aabe7d34c3e65b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-13T17:27:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Fabio S. Bonachela.pdf: 962287 bytes, checksum: f6b9b2114655bf3914aabe7d34c3e65b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-10-31 / The International Environmental Law, its evolution and the most striking moments as far as the development of standards and basic principles is concerned, being a branch of public international law, has known an evolution in recent years, mainly due to the increasing attention that environmental issue are getting in the world, either because environmental conditions are deteriorating each year, or because there is a much larger awareness of the need to take precautions so that we can remedy what has been done wrong and to prevent the future. The definition of the environment and the evolutionary steps that trod International Environmental Law, an indication of its key moments, while defining standards, treaties and conventions on environmental protection, as it is known, are topics discussed throughout this dissertation. The issue of international trade, specifically the importation of plants and seeds and rules that this activity is submitted, according to the Brazilian legislation, based on the determinations of the United Nations is also an integral part of this job. / O Direito Internacional Ambiental, a sua evolução e os momentos mais marcantes, no que à elaboração de normas e princípios base diz respeito enquanto ramo do Direito Internacional Público, tem conhecido uma evolução nos últimos anos, sobretudo devido à cada vez maior atenção que a temática ambiental vem ganhando no mundo, seja porque as condições ambientais se têm deteriorado a cada ano que passa, seja porque existe uma maior consciência de que é necessário tomar precauções para que se possa remediar o que já foi feito de errado e prevenir o futuro. A definição de meio ambiente e os passos evolutivos que o Direito Internacional Ambiental trilhou, a indicação dos seus momentos chaves, enquanto definidor de normas, Tratados e Convenções na defesa do meio ambiente, tal como se conhece, são temas abordados no decorrer desta dissertação. A questão do comércio internacional, mais concretamente a importação de plantas e sementes e as regras que essa atividade está submetida, em função da legislação brasileira, com base nas determinações das Nações Unidas é também parte integrante deste trabalho.

Submitted by Rosina Valeria Lanzellotti Mattiussi Teixeira (rosina.teixeira@unisantos.br) on 2017-04-08T14:05:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Gabriela Soldano Garcez.pdf: 636743 bytes, checksum: 9610faa4351ee80240463786dc209a7b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-08T14:05:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gabriela Soldano Garcez.pdf: 636743 bytes, checksum: 9610faa4351ee80240463786dc209a7b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The principle of popular participation, a guide to Environmental Law, allows civil society to participate in decision-making process and the preparation, execution and monitoring of public policies in the environmental area, given that it is the duty of both the Government and society the defense and protect of the environment for present and future generations (according to article 225, of the Brazilian Federal Constitution). However, the society may only participate appropriately in this process if obtains the environmental information necessary to do so. Then, access to environmental information is a implementation tool and the assumption of public participation in environmental matters. On the other hand, at present time, the mass communication media produces all kinds of content, keeping the public included informed about environmental issues. The performance of such vehicles is part (both nationally and internationally) of the context of governance and globalization. In this sense, this thesis addresses, at first, global governance, indicating its concept and importance. After, it ponders about the mass communication media, by evaluating its status as an emerging actor in international relations with influence to environmental protection. Then, it examines the role of information as a propellant element of popular participation in the protection and defense of inalienable rights, such as the ecologically balanced environment, as well as providing training in environmental education. Finally, it ponders about the increasing popular participation through access to quality environmental information, as well as on the construction of sustainable development, from the formation of public opinion in favor of the environment. / O princípio da participação popular, norteador do Direito Ambiental, permite que a sociedade civil participe das tomadas de decisões e da elaboração, efetivação e fiscalização das políticas públicas na área ambiental, tendo em vista que é dever tanto do Poder Público quanto da sociedade a proteção e defesa do meio ambiente para as presentes e futuras gerações (conforme o artigo 225, caput, da Constituição Federal de 1988). Entretanto, a sociedade somente poderá participar adequadamente deste processo se obtiver as informações ambientais necessárias para tanto. O acesso à informação ambiental é o instrumento de implementação e pressuposto da participação popular em matéria ambiental. Por outro lado, na atualidade, os veículos de comunicação de massa, ao produzir os mais variados tipos de conteúdo, mantém a população informada sobre as questões ambientais. A atuação de tais veículos insere-se (tanto no plano nacional quanto no internacional) no contexto da governança e da globalização. Neste sentido, a presente tese aborda, primeiramente, a governança global, indicando seu conceito e importância. Após, pondera sobre os veículos de comunicação de massa, ao avaliar seu status como um ator emergente nas relações internacionais com influência para a proteção ambiental. Em seguida, analisa o papel da informação como elemento ensejador da participação popular na proteção e defesa de direitos indisponíveis, como, por exemplo, o meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, além de propiciar a formação da educação ambiental. Por fim, pondera sobre o incremento da participação popular através do acesso à informação ambiental de qualidade, bem como sobre a construção do desenvolvimento sustentável, a partir da formação da opinião pública em prol do meio ambiente.

The once pristine and rich marine environment of the South China Sea is degrading at an alarming rate due to the rapid socioeconomic development of the region. Despite this, and because mainly of complicated sovereignty and maritime boundary disputes, coastal States have not been able to develop effective regional cooperation to safeguard the shared marine environment. This dissertation, “Towards a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the South China Sea: Legal and Political Perspectives”, researches legal and political measures to support the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. Such a network, if properly developed, would not only help to protect the marine environment and resources of the region but also contribute to lower the tension among its coastal States. These measures should be developed in accordance with international law, based on the specific geopolitical context of the South China Sea region and take into consideration experiences in developing regional networks of marine protected areas from other marine regions. Consequently, three optional categories of measures for the development of a network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea are suggested at the end. They include national-focused measures; measures to enhance the regional cooperation; and measures to build a regime for marine protected areas and network of marine protected areas in the South China Sea. These measures could be taken alternatively or on a step-by-step basis.

O trabalho abordará as conseqüências dos atos terroristas no meio ambiente. A aplicação da disciplina da responsabilidade civil é o mecanismo jurídico adequado para o enfrentamento da questão referente à responsabilidade pelos danos causados ao meio ambiente pela atividade terrorista. Os atos terroristas, que atualmente assombram a comunidade mundial, além de acarretarem inúmeras e terríveis mortes humanas, acarretam também danos ambientais, que podem prejudicar, em muitos casos, grande parte da população mundial, colocando o futuro da humanidade em grave perigo. O meio ambiente é essencial para a sadia qualidade de vida e está interligado ao direito à saúde e à vida, sendo caracterizado como um direito da pessoa humana de terceira geração. Assim, abordaremos o direito a um meio ambiente equilibrado e sadio como um direito fundamental do homem. O meio ambiente reflete valores comuns e superiores e constitui interesse comum de toda a sociedade. Dessa forma, estabelecer o responsável pelos danos ambientais ocorridos e que sejam decorrentes dos atos terroristas mostra-se extremamente relevante, vez que esses atos estão cada vez mais audaciosos e têm prejudicado um número maior de comunidades. Os assuntos relacionados ao terrorismo não conhecem fronteiras, especialmente no que diz respeito às questões sobre as conseqüências desses seus atos no meio ambiente. O mundo não pode ficar inerte a tais acontecimentos. Nesse sentido o Estado desempenha um papel fundamental, tendo em vista possuir o dever na repressão e prevenção do terrorismo e o dever maior da preservação do meio ambiente para as presentes e futuras gerações. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-05-20T16:41:50Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Gabriela Grings Fleck.pdf: 797048 bytes, checksum: 9da0174af592ba03c6cd1376ef7c77b0 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-20T16:41:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Gabriela Grings Fleck.pdf: 797048 bytes, checksum: 9da0174af592ba03c6cd1376ef7c77b0 (MD5) / The work will deal with the consequences of terrorist acts on the environment. The application of civil responsibility is the proper legal mechanism to face up to the issue of responsibility for the damage caused to the environment by terrorist activity. The acts of terrorist s, which currently haunt the world community, in addition to resulting in the countless and terrible loss of human life, also cause environmental damage, which in many cases put large swathes of the world s population at risk, placing the future of humankind in grave danger. The environment is essential to a healthy quality of life and is intertwined to the right to health and life, which is a third generation human right. Thus, we deal with the right to a balanced and healthy environment as a fundamental right of man. The environment reflects common and higher values and constitutes a common interest of all society. Hence, to establish those responsible for environmental harm resulting from terrorist acts has been shown to be of extreme relevance, given that these acts are increasingly audacious and have been harming a greater number of communities. Terrorism-related issues know no borders, especially as regard the consequences of these acts for the environment. The world cannot remain inert to such events. To this end, the State exercises a fundamental role, bearing in mind it has a duty to repress and prevent terrorism and the greater duty to conserve the environment for present and future generations.

O trabalho abordará as conseqüências dos atos terroristas no meio ambiente. A aplicação da disciplina da responsabilidade civil é o mecanismo jurídico adequado para o enfrentamento da questão referente à responsabilidade pelos danos causados ao meio ambiente pela atividade terrorista. Os atos terroristas, que atualmente assombram a comunidade mundial, além de acarretarem inúmeras e terríveis mortes humanas, acarretam também danos ambientais, que podem prejudicar, em muitos casos, grande parte da população mundial, colocando o futuro da humanidade em grave perigo. O meio ambiente é essencial para a sadia qualidade de vida e está interligado ao direito à saúde e à vida, sendo caracterizado como um direito da pessoa humana de terceira geração. Assim, abordaremos o direito a um meio ambiente equilibrado e sadio como um direito fundamental do homem. O meio ambiente reflete valores comuns e superiores e constitui interesse comum de toda a sociedade. Dessa forma, estabelecer o responsável pelos danos ambientais ocorridos e que sejam decorrentes dos atos terroristas mostra-se extremamente relevante, vez que esses atos estão cada vez mais audaciosos e têm prejudicado um número maior de comunidades. Os assuntos relacionados ao terrorismo não conhecem fronteiras, especialmente no que diz respeito às questões sobre as conseqüências desses seus atos no meio ambiente. O mundo não pode ficar inerte a tais acontecimentos. Nesse sentido o Estado desempenha um papel fundamental, tendo em vista possuir o dever na repressão e prevenção do terrorismo e o dever maior da preservação do meio ambiente para as presentes e futuras gerações. / The work will deal with the consequences of terrorist acts on the environment. The application of civil responsibility is the proper legal mechanism to face up to the issue of responsibility for the damage caused to the environment by terrorist activity. The acts of terrorist s, which currently haunt the world community, in addition to resulting in the countless and terrible loss of human life, also cause environmental damage, which in many cases put large swathes of the world s population at risk, placing the future of humankind in grave danger. The environment is essential to a healthy quality of life and is intertwined to the right to health and life, which is a third generation human right. Thus, we deal with the right to a balanced and healthy environment as a fundamental right of man. The environment reflects common and higher values and constitutes a common interest of all society. Hence, to establish those responsible for environmental harm resulting from terrorist acts has been shown to be of extreme relevance, given that these acts are increasingly audacious and have been harming a greater number of communities. Terrorism-related issues know no borders, especially as regard the consequences of these acts for the environment. The world cannot remain inert to such events. To this end, the State exercises a fundamental role, bearing in mind it has a duty to repress and prevent terrorism and the greater duty to conserve the environment for present and future generations.

O propósito do princípio da precaução é evitar danos irreversíveis ao meio ambiente e à saúde humana ao permitir a ação preventiva, mesmo na ausência de certeza científica sobre as causas ou conseqüências de determinada atividade. A precaução é uma resposta às novas tecnologias e aos fenômenos que podem provocar impactos irreparáveis e incomensuráveis e que, portanto, precisam ser revistos pela comunidade internacional, Estados e indivíduos. Significa, também, envolver a participação popular nas decisões sobre quais riscos são aceitáveis em determinada sociedade e quais devem ser evitados. A base sociológica sob a qual está baseado o trabalho é a teoria de Ulrich Beck sobre a sociedade de risco global. O princípio da precaução é analisado sob os prismas dogmático e funcional: as principais características do princípio são apresentadas, bem como as críticas ao instituto; também são expostas as funções do princípio da precaução, sua eficácia social e status jurídico. A fim de explicar as dificuldades que circundam o tema dos princípios do direito internacional do meio ambiente, as principais teorias dos princípios são analisadas, concluindo-se que os princípios do DIMA necessitam de uma teoria própria. Na última parte, o trabalho procura demonstrar como o princípio da precaução pode ser operacionalizado através do fortalecimento institucional, sobretudo da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudança do Clima. O tema das mudanças climáticas é paradigmático, já que exige ação internacional preventiva a fim de evitar os impactos do aquecimento global, mesmo face à inexistência de consenso científico sobre as causas e consequências desse fenômeno. Ao permitir maior participação democrática e abrir espaço para que a percepção pública sobre os riscos possa refletir em decisões jurídico-políticas, o arranjo institucional criado pela Convenção permite, ainda que com algumas falhas, uma discussão maior sobre os desafios que circundam o tema. Considerando os fundamentos da teoria de Beck sobre a modernização reflexiva, a origem política dos riscos e a democratização das discussões sobre eles, o papel da subpolítica na sociedade atual e a irreversibilidade de catástrofes ambientais, conclui-se que o princípio da precaução é indispensável ao direito e à política ao inserir a responsabilização a priori dos possíveis danos e a participação social nas decisões futuras / The purpose of the precautionary principle is to avoid irreversible damage to the environment and human health by allowing preventive action, even in the absence of scientific certainty regarding the causes or consequences of certain activity. Precaution is an answer to new technologies and phenomena that may promote irreparable and incommensurable impacts and, therefore, need to be reviewed beforehand by the international community, states and individuals. Furthermore, it nurtures popular participation in decision-making regarding what risks are acceptable in a given society and what risks should be avoided. The sociological foundation of this work is Ulrich Becks world risk society. The precautionary principle is analysed under the dogmatic and functional viewpoints: the principles main characteristics and critiques are presented, and I also explore the precautionary principles functions, social efficacy, and legal status. In order to explain the difficulties pertaining to the subject of international environmental law, this thesis analyzes the main theories on legal principles, and concludes that a more suitable theory for international environmental law principles is needed. In the last part, this work demonstrates how the precautionary principle can be operationalized through institutional strengthening, especially of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Climate change is a paradigmatic case, since it demands international preventive action in order to avoid the impacts of global warming, even in the absence of scientific consensus regarding its causes and consequences. By allowing greater democratic participation and by creating space for communication so that public perception can be reflected in legal and political decisions, the institutional arrangement created by the Convention allows for, if imperfectly, a wider discussion about the challenges of climate change. Considering the foundations of Becks theory about reflexive modernization, the political origin of risks and the democratization of discussions on risks, the role of subpolitics in modern society and irreversibility of environmental catastrophes, this work concludes that the precautionary principle is indispensable to law and politics by adding a priori responsibility of possible damages and social participation in future decisions.

La détérioration de l’environnement et les menaces graves pour la planète, notamment les changements climatiques, l’appauvrissement de la couche d’ozone, les taux d'extinction des espèces et le défi d’alimenter une population croissante, figurent parmi les nombreux problèmes non résolus et qui mettent l'humanité en danger, et dépassent la capacité et la souveraineté des États. En droit international de l’environnement, on ne peut pas parler du principe de souveraineté étatique absolue. Dans le contexte des problèmes environnementaux globaux, l’interdépendance écologique ne permet pas l’imperméabilité du territoire, ce qui a des impacts sur l’exercice de la souveraineté de l’État. L’environnement est un bien commun qui n’a pas de frontières, ce qui a des répercussions sur les considérations légales de souveraineté étatique. Les écosystèmes ignorent les États et leurs frontières, et pour lutter contre les atteintes à l’environnement qui mettent en cause à terme la survie même de l’humanité, les États ne peuvent plus limiter leur action au cadre national. Dans ce contexte, une sorte de conciliation parait nécessaire entre les exigences de la souveraineté et celles de l'environnement que le droit international de l'environnement cherche à établir. D'où notre étude sur l'adaptation de la souveraineté étatique aux impératifs de sauvegarde de la biosphère et par là même de l'humanité tout entière. / Environmental degradation and serious threats to the planet, including climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, the extinction rate of species and the challenge of feeding a large population, are among the various unsolved problems that endanger humanity and that go beyond the capacity and sovereignty of States. In international environmental law, one cannot speak of the principle of absolute State sovereignty. In the context of the global environment, ecological interdependence does not allow territorial impermeability, which impacts on the exercise of State sovereignty. The environment is by nature a common good, not defined by borders, which has legal repercussion on State sovereignty. Ecosystems ignore States and their borders, and to fight against environmental damages that affect the very survival of humanity, States can no longer limit their action to their national context. In such context, a sort of reconciliation seems necessary between the requirements of sovereignty and those of the environment that international environmental law seeks to establish. Hence our study on the adaptation of state sovereignty to the imperatives of safeguarding the biosphere and thereby humanity as a whole.

L’interdépendance de l’environnement a mis en évidence le besoin de la communauté internationale de trouver des mécanismes capables de dépasser les frontières et de protéger les biens naturels d’intérêt commun. Étant donné l’inefficacité du concept de patrimoine commun de l’humanité en ce qui a trait à la protection des biens soumis à la souveraineté d’un État, cette étude analyse l’application de la responsabilité internationale au « dommage transfrontière médiat » (c’est-à-dire, le dommage environnemental qui a lieu à l’intérieur d’un territoire étatique, mais qui caractérise une perte au patrimoine environnemental planétaire) comme mesure capable de surmonter les frontières et de protéger l’environnement. La responsabilité internationale se présente sous deux formes en droit international public général, soit la responsabilité des États pour les activités non interdites par le droit international (ou la responsabilité objective), soit celle découlant d’un fait internationalement illicite. Cette dernière comporte encore deux subdivisions : celle ayant pour cause une « violation d’une obligation internationale » et celle pour une « violation grave d’obligation découlant de normes impératives du droit international général ». L’analyse des principes de droit environnemental international et du principe de la souveraineté démontre que le « dommage transfrontière médiat » pourrait, en théorie, être considéré comme un fait internationalement illicite permettant donc la responsabilisation d’un État. / The interdependence of the environment has highlighted the need for the international community to find mechanisms that are able to work beyond national borders and protect the natural assets of common interest. Given the inefficiency of the concept of common heritage of mankind for the protection of the natural assets subject to the sovereignty of a State, this study provides an analysis of the application of international responsibility to mediate transboundary harm (e.g. the environmental harm taking place in State’s territory that causes a loss to the planetary natural heritage) as a mechanism that can overcome borders and protect the environment. There are two types of international responsibility in general public international law. The first one consists of the State responsibility for activities not prohibited by international law; and the second one deals with the origin of an internationally wrongful act, which, in turn, has two subdivisions: one due to "violation of an international obligation" and another caused by "serious breaches of obligations under peremptory norms of general international law." The analysis of the principles of international environmental law and the principle of sovereignty demonstrate that “mediate transboundary harm” could in theory be considered an internationally wrongful act, therefore allowing the accountability of a state.

Le Fonds pour l’environnement mondial (FEM) est la plus importante source individuelle de financement aux projets et programmes destinés à promouvoir des bénéfices environnementaux globaux dans les pays en voie de développement et en transition. L’objectif de la thèse est d’examiner le rôle du FEM comme un outil de financement des conventions environnementales et du développement soutenable, en soulignant sa contribution à la mise en œuvre du droit international de l’environnement et au débat concernant la gouvernance environnementale internationale. / The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the most important single source of finance for projects and programs designed to promote global environmental benefits in developing countries and transition countries. The thesis aims at examining the role played by the GEF as a tool for financing environmental conventions and sustainable development, emphasizing its contribution to the enforcement of international environmental law and to the debate concerning international environmental governance.