La faune sauvage terrestre est actuellement confrontée a une sixième extinction de masse dont l’origine, contrairement aux extinctions des ères passées, est principalement anthropogénique. Suite à la prise de conscience de la communauté internationale dans les années 70, un nombre sans cesse croissant d’instruments juridiques ont été élaborés en vue de la protection de la faune sauvage terrestre sans pour autant parvenir à endiguer la disparition des espèces. A travers ce constat, c’est l’efficacité du régime juridique relatif à la protection de la faune sauvage terrestre qui est en cause. Le cœur du problème réside dans le fait que la faune sauvage terrestre est considérée comme une ressource naturelle. En ce sens, chaque État a compétence pour gérer, exploiter voire détruire les ressources en faune situées sur son territoire en vertu du principe de souveraineté permanente sur les ressources naturelles. Or, ce principe est en contradiction avec les réalités écologiques et biologiques dans la mesure où la faune sauvage terrestre, outre le fait qu’elle puisse être amenée a se déplacer sur le territoire de plusieurs États, participe à l’entretien d’écosystèmes ou à des processus biologiques qui dépassent bien souvent le cadre des frontières étatiques. L’exploitation des ressources en faune dans un État donné peut donc avoir des effets sur l’environnement des États tiers. En conséquence, la souveraineté des États sur leurs ressources en faune ne peut être absolue, ce que traduit imparfaitement le principe de non-utilisation dommageable du territoire dont l’application concrète et pratique à la faune sauvage terrestre reste incertaine eu égard à la difficile appréhension par le droit de la complexité des processus écologiques transfrontières. La faune sauvage terrestre ne devrait donc pas être soumise au même régime juridique que les ressources naturelles extractives qui sont invariablement situées sur le territoire d’un État donné et qui ne participent à l’entretien d’aucun écosystème ou processus biologique. Il serait sans doute plus pertinent d’envisager pour la faune sauvage terrestre un régime juridique comparable à celui qui s’applique à certains cours d’eau et bassins internationaux basé sur la Coopération. En effet, même s'il n’existe pas de régime juridique général applicable aux cours d’eau, ces derniers sont la plupart du temps considérés comme des ressources partagées de facto impliquant une gestion commune par les États riverains sans que la souveraineté de ces derniers soit remise en cause. Cette solution n’est pas celle qui prévaut actuellement en droit international. En effet, le régime actuel, entièrement construit autour du principe de souveraineté permanente sur les ressources naturelles se caractérise par sa fragmentation. Les obligations étatiques en matière de protection de la faune sauvage terrestre sont majoritairement d’origine conventionnelle. [...] / Terrestrial wildlife is actually facing a sixth mass extinction which is mostly anthropogenic contrary to past mass extinctions. After the international community took notice of the problem in the 70s, an increasing number of legal instruments were adopted in order to protect terrestrial wildlife worldwide. Yet, wildlife populations continued to decline. Through this terrible assessment, it is the efficiency of the international legal regime of wildlife protection which needs to be questioned and scrutinized.The crux of the problem lies in the fact that terrestrial wildlife is considered as a natural resource. As such, each State has jurisdiction to manage, exploit, deplete, or even destroy wildlife resources located on their territory pursuant to the principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources. However, this principle is in contradiction with ecological and biological realities Indeed, terrestrial fauna, apart from the fact that it may move from one State to the other, is involved in the maintenance of ecosystems and other complex biological processes which effects are felt way outside the borders of a single State. As a result, the exploitation of wildlife resources in one State can have dire consequences on the environment of other States. As such, sovereignty over wildlife resources cannot be absolute which the principle of good neighbourliness imperfectly captures. Yet, it appears that the application of this principle in the context of the conservation of wildlife resources raises a certain number of uncertainties due to the difficulty to translate in legal terms the complexities of the ecological processes involved. Consequently, terrestrial wildlife should not be regulated by the same legal regime as the one applicable to extractive resources which are invariably located within the borders of a single State and are not part of any transnational ecological process. Maybe would it be more relevant to apply a legal regime similar to the one applicable to international waterways, most of them are considered as de facto shared resources implying a regime of common management between Riverine States without their respective sovereignty being challenged in any way. Yet this solution is not the one that prevails under international law as far as wildlife resources are concerned. The actual regime is entirely built around the principle of terrestrial sovereignty over natural resources where each State is responsible for implementing its international obligations in its own territory. [...]

Esta dissertação examina, da ótica da teoria política normativa, as justificativas oferecidas para intervenções humanitárias com uso da força dentro do contexto atual, quando a internacionalização dos direitos humanos e as crises humanitárias exigiram uma adequação da soberania estatal a princípios internacionais de justiça. Como se trata de uma intervenção militar, ainda que humanitária, o uso abusivo da força pode comprometer a eficácia dos direitos humanos que a própria intervenção pretendia defender. Daí ser importante circunscrever a intervenção humanitária dentro de limites toleráveis, de modo que o emprego da força física não comprometa o objetivo de proteger direitos humanos. Tanto as justificações normativas para as intervenções, como os riscos envolvidos nesse tipo de ação, são discutidos / This dissertation discusses, from the perspective of the normative political theory, the justification for forcible humanitarian interventions in world\'s present circumstances, when both the international reach of human rights and humanitarian crises call for an adjustment of the state sovereignty to international principles of justice. Since a military, though humanitarian, intervention is involved, the abusive use of force may endanger the very human rights which is the main purpose of the intervention to protect. Hence the importance of circumscribing the humanitarian intervention within tolerable moral limits, so that the use of physical force does not undermine the protection of human rights. Both the moral justification for and the risks of humanitarian interventions are examined

This thesis consists in a critical analysis of international law’s traditional historical narrative about the prohibition of the use of force. Most contemporary textbooks teach that this prohibition was a creation of the twentieth century, and that beforehand States were free to resort to armed force against each other unconstrained. Positive international law, the story goes, was ‘indifferent’ to the use of force – it did not prohibit it but did not authorize it either, which meant that, in practice, States could do as they pleased. ‘Reality’ as it stems from historical sources, however, appears much more complex. In fact, not only did the vast majority of nineteenth century authors claimed war and measures short of war to be strictly ring-fenced by international law, but it also seems that States quasi-systematically felt the urge to justify their actions when they employed force against another nation. Starting from the observation of this discrepancy and using tools of history, sociology, anthropology and social psychology, the present research seeks to understand the roots of the ‘indifference’-narrative and how it became the commonly accepted version of the history of the use of force in international. / Doctorat en Sciences juridiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This master thesis is focused on international-legal analysis of the relationship between development projects and environmental migration. The relationship between development projects and environmental migration is from the point of view of the international law almost unexamined and unregulated area, so this is the reason why I chose this theme as the topic of my research. The aim of this thesis is to analyse this relationship in respect to the international law and to search for an appropriate international legal instrument to regulate this relationship. The outputs are the answers to the following research questions: What is development project and what is environmental migration? What are the legal aspects of the relationship between development projects and environmental migration? Is it possible to treat this relationship in international law? Why is this area neglected by international law? Would not it be better to create a separate international legal framework for resettlement caused by development projects? The diploma thesis is composed of four main chapters, under which I am progressively trying to find answers to the above mentioned research questions. The first chapter is devoted to the development project and to determination of its definition, including its terminological...

Strategic international public-private partnerships (SIPPPs) involve private multinational and public domestic sector parties. SIPPPs are a more complex but less studied form of international strategic alliance (ISA) and increasingly important in the development of emerging economies. A growing body of ISA research has suggested the importance of cultural differences in the often-reported failure of such cross-cultural relationships, but their exact nature remains unknown. This study examines the effects of both national and organisational cultural value systems on trust-building in SIPPPs. It uniquely also tests whether the two types of cultural values are accorded differently by the two types of partner, private and public. The complex relationship building processes were studied through the combined lenses of social-exchange and cultural-exchange theories, providing a rich perspective on the phenomenon under study. The sample, based on purposive sampling, consisted of successful and unsuccessful SIPPS of various sizes, from different industries, operating in a number of African countries. Africa, with its challenging environment and increasing focus on SIPPPs, represented an "extreme context" within which hypotheses could be rigorously tested. The relationships were tested empirically using structural equation modelling. The study confirmed a strong relationship between partners’ economic and collaborative interdependency on the one hand, and mutual trust-levels on the other. Cultural difference was shown to have both a negative direct effect as well as a positive moderating effect on trust building, providing support for the notion of a “cultural paradox”. Strong evidence was provided that partners from opposite sides of the dyad, informed by their respective cultural backgrounds, have different perceptions of the relative importance of these relationships in building trust. The findings have theoretical and practical significance, suggesting that SIPPP partners can improve trust levels and sustain their relationship by building ties of economic interdependence and engaging in collaborative actions to build their collaborative interdependence. The importance of partners being sensitive to each other’s needs and perceptions, and of engaging in reciprocity to build mutual confidence and trust seems critical. The findings have important implications for SIPPP design and needed management skills, as well as for future cross-cultural dyadic research. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2018. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / PhD / Unrestricted

International relations is constructed of ideas and concepts that have won legitimacy through the passage of time. Diplomacy is an ancient practices that has evolved and has become a practice that states have accepted as legitimate. The arrival of the digital world and the new Information Communications Technologies (ICTs) in the diplomatic world has made it possible to adopt trends like engaging in social media applications like Twitter to practice diplomacy. This creates the need to better understand the use of social media platforms as a tool of diplomacy. The growing engagement of Heads of States and Governments in communicating messages on Twitter, the so-called Twidiplomacy, is changing from what was considered a mere “trend” to a “common practice” in the conduct of diplomatic practice. As authorities share their culture through their behaviour and it is further shared and emulated through the use of Twitter by other authorities, these actions create new collective identities and shared knowledge in the diplomatic practice. These trends may lead to new patterns of diplomatic behaviour that may transform the diplomatic practice. Abdullakkutty (2018:11) contends that as an extension of innovative digital diplomacy “the use of social media is so extended that it can easily realise the diplomatic functions of negotiation, representation and communication”. Using a case study of tweets by a few Heads of States and Governments tweeting on similar major diplomatic incidents, this study researches these trends in innovative diplomacy leading to Twidiplomacy and how these are affecting the traditional roles of diplomacy, namely: negotiation, representation and communication. / Mini Dissertation (MDips)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Political Sciences / MA (Diplomatic Studies) / Unrestricted

Underweight and stunting are highly prevalent public health problems in developing countries, particularly among populations exposed to food insecurity and chronic malnutrition. Underweight results from relatively recent malnutrition whereas empirical research has shown that early childhood malnutrition is a strong predictor of stunting. Dietary diversity has been recognized as an indicator of food security, with consumption of more food groups suggesting better nourishment. Greater dietary diversity has been associated with better nutritional outcomes and improved micronutrient intake. Zinc, an essential mineral, plays a critical role in child growth and development. A deficiency in Zinc may contribute to increased risk for stunting in childhood and adolescence. This cross-sectional study examined the independent associations between underweight, stunting, dietary diversity, and dietary intake of zinc among a sample of never-married adolescent girls (n=307) living in Kilosa District, Tanzania. Dietary, anthropometric, physical activity, morbidity and demographic data were collected. The associations between underweight (determined as weight by age less than 5th percentile of WHO reference) and dietary diversity (defined by the number of food groups consumed by adolescent girls); as well as stunting (determined as height by age less than 3rd percentile of WHO reference) and dietary intake of zinc were tested using multivariate analyses. We found that adolescent girls’ diets were largely deficient in macronutrients and micronutrients, with the mean intake of energy and protein being 810kcals/d and 21.9g/d, respectively. The rates of underweight and stunting were 16.2% and 62.2%, respectively. Greater dietary diversity was associated with decreased risk of underweight among adolescent girls, after adjusting for confounders including age, village location, school enrollment, pubertal status, socioeconomic status and energy intake, (OR, 0.55, 95%CI 0.39-0.98, p<0.05). Similarly, higher intake of zinc was found to be associated with lower risk of stunting, after controlling for age, physical activity, BMI, energy intake and individual’s dietary diversity (OR, 0.87; 95%CI, 0.76-0.99, p<0.05). In conclusion, these findings suggest that dietary diversity and nutrient intake, especially intake of zinc, may play an important role in the long-term nutritional health of adolescent girls. Longitudinal studies examining these associations in developing countries settings are needed.

Iron depletion (ID) is the most common nutrient deficiency worldwide and is the leading cause of anemia. Chronic arsenic (As) exposure is a major public health problem in Bangladesh and triggers inflammatory responses that render iron status assessment challenging. We assessed the prevalence of ID and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in 147 arsenic-exposed Bangladeshi women (75 skin lesion cases; 72 controls), ages 18-33 years, who were part of a skin lesion study. Hemoglobin (Hb) was measured in whole blood; ferritin and hs-c-reactive protein (CRP) were measured in serum. The prevalence of anemia (Hb<120g/L) was 18%. Although the prevalence of ID (ferritin≤12mcg/L) did not differ between cases and controls, anemia was more common among cases (25% vs. 10%; p=0.02). Of anemic women, 27% (N=7) also had ID (Hb<120g/L and ferritin≤12mcg/L), indicating IDA. Women with normal iron status had higher toenail arsenic compared to iron-depleted women (2.9 vs 1.4 µg As/g toenail; p=0.00), and their water arsenic concentration was higher than that of iron-depleted women (18.8 vs 6.2 µg As/L; p=0.03); every 1µg increase in toenail As was associated with a 45% lowered risk of ID (OR=0.55, 95%CI=0.33,0.94). Much of the anemia in this cohort appears unrelated to ID, but could be linked to other nutrients, such as folate and vitamin B12, which are involved in both hematopoiesis and arsenic metabolism. It is possible that arsenic exposure in this cohort compromised folate and vitamin B12 status.

High levels of adherence have been identified as a key factor for effective pre-exposure prophylaxis medication (PrEP). Because PrEP is a new concept in HIV prevention, there are limited data on predictors of adherence, though initial findings indicate that sexual behavior could be an influencing factor. This study examines different aspects of sexual behavior and their associations with monthly rates and patterns of adherence. We enrolled 1147 HIV-negative individuals living in long-term serodiscordant relationships at three sites in Uganda. Sexual behavior was assessed via monthly in-person interviews and adherence was measured through electronic monitoring of pill bottle openings. We used generalized estimation equations to adjust for risk factors of low adherence to PrEP medication. Fifty-three percent of participants were male, 51% were aged between 18 and 34 years, the median number of years they had lived with the HIV-positive partner was 8.5 years and 24.2% were in polygamous relationships. Participants who had sex with other partners and also had less than 100% use of condoms were more than twice as likely to have less than 80% adherence (OR=2.48, 95%CI=1.70-3.62). Per electronic monitoring, 54.7% of cohort participants had at least one 72-hour consecutive gap in adherence. Participants who had sex with other partners and were also had also reported less than 100% use of condoms had a 50% increase in odds of having a 72-hour gap in adherence (OR=1.50, 95%CI=1.19-31.91). Low overall adherence and extended gaps in adherence were more common in participants that abstained from sex and those that reported sex outside their primary partnership. Despite high monthly adherence rates, many study participants had long periods of non-adherence during which they engaged in risky sexual behavior with potential for HIV acquisition.

Adolescent Nutritional Status and its Association with Village-level Factors in Tanzania Undernutrition is associated with multiple risk factors operating at different levels, from the individual level to household and community levels. Empirical research has shown that contextual or environmental factors influence nutritional status, but very few studies have examined association between these factors and undernutrition among adolescents. This cross-sectional study used a two-level hierarchical nonlinear model to investigate the association between village-level factors and undernutrition (BMI for Age < 5th percentile of the WHO reference) among a sample of adolescents, (n=670) from 28 villages in Kilosa District, Tanzania. Our hypothesis that contextual factors are associated with undernutrition was supported. The odds of undernutrition were more than twice as high among adolescents from villages with low income expenditure values compared to villages with middle or high income expenditure values (OR: 2.28; CI: 1.429,3.645). Similarly, community food insecurity was a significant predictor of undernutrition (OR: 0.63; CI: 0.467, 0.847; p < 0.05). We also observed a positive association between improved nutritional status and dietary diversity. The multilevel analytic framework employed in this study has demonstrated that both individual-level and community-level characteristics are important predictors of undernutrition in adolescents. Our findings have important policy implications in relation to developing targeted intervention strategies that improve village SES and diversified diets, which in turn may contribute to improved nutritional health for adolescents and their household members.