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Este estudio se basa en la premisa de que la interpretación es una actividad social y que por tanto necesita describirse y explicarse en referencia al contexto cultural, político y social del escenario en que el intérprete opera. Se estudian los aspectos sociopolíticos de la interpretación en el Tribunal Militar Internacional para el Lejano Oriente (TMILO, 1946-1948) mediante una investigación archivística e histórica de la organización de la interpretación y un estudio de caso del comportamiento de los lingüistas (especialistas del idioma) que trabajaron en el proceso de interpretación. Tras exponer resumidamente la organización de la interpretación, este estudio analiza las características propias de interpretar en el TMILO. En primer lugar, investiga por qué el tribunal organizó la interpretación de forma que tres grupos diferentes social y étnicamente se encargaban de tres funciones diferentes: los ciudadanos japoneses actuaban de intérpretes en el procedimiento, los nisei (Japoneses- americanos de segunda generación) monitorizaban la actuación de los intérpretes, y oficiales militares caucasianos, en calidad de peritos lingüísticos, decidían las discrepancias en las traducciones e interpretaciones. Este estudio desvela que la carencia de lingüistas americanos competentes condujo al uso de ciudadanos japoneses como intérpretes; y que dicha estructura jerárquica funcionaba como una muestra de autoridad y para impedir la "mala fe" que, supuestamente, albergaban los intérpretes japoneses y los monitores nisei. En segundo lugar, se aplica el concepto de "normas negociadas" para examinar cómo se desarrollaron los procesos de interpretación durante el primer año del TMILO en que ninguno de los lingüistas había recibido formación como intérprete profesional y los usuarios de la interpretación no estaban familiarizados con su funcionamiento. Este examen subraya el aspecto interactivo de la creación de normas y las limitaciones cognitivas del intérprete como un factor de dicho proceso. Por último, se examina la ambigua y compleja posición de los monitores nisei. Fueron contratados por un gobierno que les había tratado injustamente como "enemigos ajenos", en un juicio contra los antiguos líderes de la patria de sus padres; y usaban habilidades arraigadas en su herencia para trabajar como monitores.Se estudia el comportamiento de los lingüistas durante los testimonios de Hideki Tojo y otros testigos japoneses centrándonos en la naturaleza de las interjecciones de los monitores y de los intérpretes y las interacciones entre los lingüistas y otros participantes del juicio. Algunos de los resultados apoyan la hipótesis que conecta el comportamiento de los lingüistas con su posición provisional en la constelación de poder de este escenario.En último lugar de la jerarquía, los intérpretes japoneses hablan en contadas ocasiones por cuenta propia y casi nunca ponen objeciones a las interjecciones aparentemente innecesarias o incluso erróneas de los monitores. Dada la situación intermedia de los monitores en el sistema de interpretación, sus aparentemente excesivas interjecciones en japonés pueden explicarse como una muestra de autoridad hacia los intérpretes japoneses y como un mensaje al tribunal (que no entendía japonés) de que estaban trabajando con eficacia corrigiendo errores de interpretación. La menor frecuencia de interjecciones en inglés por parte de estos monitores puede ser debida a la consideración por la preocupación de sus patrones por la falta de tiempo. El perito lingüístico no se involucraba en ninguna actividad espontánea, pero su presencia al lado de la fiscalía y sus anuncios de resoluciones de disputas lingüísticas en el tribunal debe haber reforzado la imagen de que el ejército estadounidense estaba al mando.Los resultados de este estudio refuerzan la idea de que la interpretación es una práctica social. La influencia de los aspectos sociopolíticos del escenario se hace evidente en la organización de la interpretación. Además, la información disponible sugiere que el comportamiento de los lingüistas era consecuente con su posición relativa en la jerarquía. El autor espera que algunos de los temas tratados en este estudio, como la confianza, la ética, las relaciones de poder y las normas negociadas, sean revisados para una mayor comprensión de los temas relacionados con el idioma en nuestra sociedad actual. / This study is based on the premise that interpreting is a social activity, which therefore needs to be described and explained with reference to the social, political and cultural context of the setting in which the interpreter operates. Sociopolitical aspects of interpreting at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE, 1946-1948) are studied through historical and archival research of the interpreting arrangements and a case study on the behavior of linguists (language specialists) who worked in the interpreting process during the testimonies of Hideki Tojo and other Japanese witnesses. Three sets of concepts are applied to analyze three salient features of interpreting at the IMTFE. Based on the notions of "trust, power and control", the historical and political context of the IMTFE and the social and cultural backgrounds of each linguist group are examined to explore why the tribunal devised the interpreting arrangements in which three ethnically and socially different groups of linguists engaged in three different functions: interpreter, monitor and language arbiter. The concept of "negotiated norms" is applied to discuss the interactional aspect of how the interpreting procedures developed over the initial stage of the trial, with the interpreters' cognitive constraints as a factor in that process. Cronin's notion (2002) of "autonomous and heteronomous interpreters" is drawn on to discuss the complex position of the Japanese American linguists who worked as monitors. The nature of interjections by the monitors and interpreters and the interactions between the court and each linguist group during the interpreted testimonies of Japanese witnesses are examined. Findings of this analysis support the hypothesis which links interpreters' choices, strategies and behavior to their awareness of where they stand in the power constellation of the interpreted event.

<p>This research paper is an analysis of the case United States v Flick et al which took place in 1947 in Nuremberg, Germany. Friedrich Flick, a powerful German industrialist, and several high ranking officials of his firm were tried by a United States military tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Third Reich. The&nbsp / proceedings and the decision itself are the subject of a critical examination, including an investigation of the factual and legal background. The trial will be regarded in the historical context of prosecutions against German industrialists after World War II. Seen from present-day perspective, the question will be raised whether any conclusions can be drawn from the Flick case in respect of the substance of present-day international criminal law. <br /> &nbsp / </p>

<p>This research paper is an analysis of the case United States v Flick et al which took place in 1947 in Nuremberg, Germany. Friedrich Flick, a powerful German industrialist, and several high ranking officials of his firm were tried by a United States military tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Third Reich. The&nbsp / proceedings and the decision itself are the subject of a critical examination, including an investigation of the factual and legal background. The trial will be regarded in the historical context of prosecutions against German industrialists after World War II. Seen from present-day perspective, the question will be raised whether any conclusions can be drawn from the Flick case in respect of the substance of present-day international criminal law. <br /> &nbsp / </p>

This research paper is an analysis of the case United States v Flick et al which took place in 1947 in Nuremberg, Germany. Friedrich Flick, a powerful German industrialist, and several high ranking officials of his firm were tried by a United States military tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Third Reich. The proceedings and the decision itself are the subject of a critical examination, including an investigation of the factual and legal background. The trial will be regarded in the historical context of prosecutions against German industrialists after World War II. Seen from present-day perspective, the question will be raised whether any conclusions can be drawn from the Flick case in respect of the substance of present-day international criminal law. / Magister Legum - LLM

La thèse analyse la contribution de la France au procès des grands criminels de guerre devant le Tribunal militaire international (TMI) de Nuremberg en 1945/46 sur le plan politique ainsi que juridique. / The dissertation examines the French contribution to the Trial of the Major German War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at Nuremberg in 1945/46 in its political and judicial dimension.

Magister Legum - LLM / This research paper is an analysis of the case United States v Flick et al which took place in 1947 in Nuremberg, Germany. Friedrich Flick, a powerful German industrialist, and several high ranking officials of his firm were tried by a United States military tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Third Reich. The proceedings and the decision itself are the subject of a critical examination, including an investigation of the factual and legal background. The trial will be regarded in the historical context of prosecutions against German industrialists after World War II. Seen from present-day perspective, the question will be raised whether any conclusions can be drawn from the Flick case in respect of the substance of present-day international criminal law. / South Africa

A rebours de la croyance populaire qui veut que le temps efface les blessures, le constat s'impose de l'omniprésence de la mémoire comme matrice des orientations décidées par nos gouvernants. Soixante-dix ans après la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, elle occupe l'espace public dans toutes ses composantes et pousse à l'adoption de lois de reconnaissance des victimes et de sanction des discours de négation. Parallèlement, le législateur doit répondre à ses engagements conventionnels et satisfaire aux exigences de la justice pénale internationale. Mais ici encore, les contingences politiques sont fortes, qui sclérosent la réflexion juridique et conduisent à l'élaboration de dispositions controversées. Ce phénomène, ostensible en France, l'est moins chez notre voisin allemand, pourtant tributaire d'un lourd héritage mémoriel. Cette observation peut surprendre celui qui ne tient pas compte des évolutions conjointes mais divergentes des deux Etats depuis 1945, quant à la « gestion » des crimes internationaux par nature et de leurs suites ; d'où l'utilité d'une approche transversale, historique et comparative de ces questions. / Contrary to the popular belief that the time clears injuries, the finding must be made of the omnipresence of the memory as a matrix of guidelines decided by our leaders. Seventy years after the World War II ended, it occupies public space in all its components and drives the adoption of laws recognizing victims and punishing speech of negation. Meanwhile, the legislature must meet its conventional obligations and the requirements of international criminal justice. But again, the political contingencies are strong, which block legal thinking and lead to the creation of controversial provisions. This phenomenon, striking in France, is less at our german neighbor, yet reliant on a heavy legacy memorial. This observation may surprise those who do not consider the joint but divergent evolutions of the two states since 1945, on the « treatment » of international crimes by nature and their consequences ; hence the usefulness of a transverse, historical and comparative approach to these issues.

Face aux atrocités perpétrées par les armées allemandes et japonaises, les Alliés en viennent à la même conclusion durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale : la meilleure réponse à la barbarie se situe dans une justice exemplaire. Châtier les plus hauts dignitaires nazis et japonais est jugé de la plus haute importance. Ces idéaux élevés de justice se trouvent pourtant être vite compromis avec les réalités d’après-guerre. Invitée par les États-Unis à juger les grands criminels de guerre japonais, la France accepte de participer au Tribunal militaire international pour l’Extrême-Orient. De mai 1946 à décembre 1948, vingt-huit prévenus comparaissent devant un collège de juges de onze nationalités différentes pour répondre de leurs responsabilités dans la guerre du Pacifique. La présence de la France à ce procès est motivée par des enjeux politiques : le nouveau gouvernement français espère reconquérir l’Indochine ; ce procès international lui offre une scène inattendue pour affirmer son prestige en Extrême-Orient. Mais les délégués français vont se comporter de manière imprévisible à Tokyo. À partir de sources inédites, cette thèse se propose de suivre leur engagement en faveur d’une justice internationale. Elle apporte ainsi une nouvelle perspective sur le procès de Tokyo et sur l’histoire de la justice transitionnelle / Alarmed by the magnitude of the atrocities perpetrated in Europe and in Asia, the Allies demonstrated their resolve to punish those responsible for such acts in 1945. From 1945 to 1948, prominent members of Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire were prosecuted at the Nuremberg and the Tokyo International Military Trials. In Japan, the United States invited France to participate in the Tokyo trial. This trial offered her an unexpected opportunity to build prestige in the Far East; during World War II, France had lost her richest colony, Indochina, and hoped to regain it. France wanted to prove that she was a nation of rights in Asia where decolonization was gaining ground. But it is hardly surprising that her delegates did not protect the national interest. On the contrary, they just wished to improve the fairness of the Tokyo trial. Based on unpublished sources, this thesis aims to understand their commitment to international justice. It sheds new light on the Tokyo trial and on the history of transitional justice

La création de juridictions internationales pour juger les responsables d'un crime international pose la question des techniques d'imputation. Il s'agit de la mise en oeuvre du principe de la responsabilité pénale individuelle (RPI) en droit international. D'une part, le DPI emprunte les techniques traditionnelles aux droits pénaux internes. Il s'agit des techniques dépendantes de la consommation du crime international : les formes différentes de « commission » et de « complicité ». Sont empruntées, aussi, d'autres techniques traditionnelles d'imputation qui sont indépendantes de la consommation du crime : la tentative et l'incrimination de quelques actes de complicité. Ces techniques correspondent aux exigences de la RPI, d'où la confirmation du principe. D'autre part, le DPI adopte des nouvelles techniques d'imputation pour faire face à la nature collective du crime international. Se fondant sur l'idée de « groupe », des techniques associatives sont mises en place : la responsabilité pour l'appartenance à une organisation criminelle ou bien de la responsabilité des actes du groupe à travers l'entreprise criminelle commune ou le contrôle conjoint sur l'action du groupe. En même temps, le fait que les crimes sont souvent commis par des « structures hiérarchiques » est pris en compte pour envisager des techniques structurelles ; à savoir la responsabilité pour commission indirecte par le contrôle d'une organisation ou de la responsabilité du supérieur hiérarchique pour les crimes commis par ses subordonnés. Chacune de ces techniques s'écarte de ce que l'on entend généralement par la RPI, d'où la métamorphose du principe. Une reconstruction de la notion est à l'ordre du jour. / The establishment of International criminal tribunals raises the question of techniques of attributing criminal liability. Having the individual as « subject », the principle of individual criminal responsibility is at issue. On the one hand, International criminal law borrows traditional techniques of imputing liability from national law. Not only those techniques that depend on the completion of an international crime; as forms of perpetration and complicity, but also those that attribute responsibility independently of the completion of international crime; as attempt and specific incrimination of some forms of complicity. Individual criminal responsibility in its traditional connotation is confirmed. On the other hand, International criminal law forges new techniques of imputing liability to accommodate the collective nature of international crimes. Based on the idea of « group » action, associative techniques are introduced. As such, the responsibility for membership in criminal organisation, or even the responsibility for group crimes through notions like « joint criminal enterprise » or « joint control » are applied. In the meanwhile, the structural aspect of entities committing international crimes is taken in consideration. Superiors who manipulate organisations under their control are considered as indirect perpetrators. Also, superiors who fail to stop or to punish crimes committed by their subordinates are held responsible. Each one of these new techniques of imputing responsibility metamorphoses one or more aspects of what is generally intended by the principle of individual criminal responsibility. Reconstructing the notion seems due.