De part leurs propriétés physiques et chimiques, les nanoparticules de silice mésoporeuses (MSNs) sont de bonnes candidates pour la délivrance de principes actifs. Cependant, leurs toxicités et leurs devenirs intracellulaires sont largement méconnus. Au cours de ces travaux, nous avons étudié la cytotoxicité et l’endocytose de MSNs. Nous avons montré que les MSNs peuvent être endocytées par une variété de lignées cellulaires et par des astrocytes de rat en culture sans signe apparent de cytotoxicité importante. Ces nanoparticules ne présentent pas une toxicité observable in vivo chez des souris. Après avoir montré que l’endocytose des MSNs s’effectue par la voie des puits de clathrines, nous avons procédé à la délivrance intracellulaire d’une protéine. Nous avons montré un échappement des lysosomes de cette protéine grâce aux MSNs. En couplant l’acide folique aux MSNs, les cellules tumorales ont été ciblées. Lors de ces études, nous avons également montré que l’un des tests les plus utilisés en toxicologie surestime la cytotoxicité des MSNs. Cette surestimation est due à une modification du trafic intracellulaire. Nos travaux ont montré que les MSNs sont endocytés sans nuire à la viabilité cellulaire, ce qui nous a permis de réaliser les premiers essais de délivrances de principes actifs avec nos nanoparticules. / Due to their physical and chemical properties, the mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are good candidates for drug delivery applications. However, their toxicity and their intracellular trafficking remain unclear. During these works, we studied the cytotoxicity and the endocytosis of MSNs. We showed that the MSNs can be internalised by a variety of cell lines and rat astrocytes in culture without visible sign of important cytotoxicity. These nanoparticles did not present an observable in vivo toxicity in mice. Then we showed that the endocytosis of the MSNs was made by the clathrines coated pits and we proceeded to the intracellular delivery of a protein. We showed an escape of the lysosomes of this protein due to MSNs. Such an internalised protein escaped from lysosomes under the effect of MSNs. After linking folic acid to MSNs, we are able to target tumoral cells with these nanoparticles. During the preceding studies we observed that one of the most used tests in toxicology overestimated the cytotoxicity of MSNs because the latter nanoparticles modified intracellular traffic. Our works showed that the MSNs are internalized without damaging the cellular viability and we made the first experiments of drug delivery using our nanoparticles.

RALF é um peptídeo hormonal de aproximadamente 5kDa presente em diferentes espécies do reino vegetal regulando negativamente a expansão celular. AtRALF1 é uma isoforma específica de raiz das 37 presentes em Arabidopsis thaliana que regula negativamente o crescimento de raízes seguido de uma mobilização de Ca+2 intracelular e inibição na secreção de prótons (H+). Neste trabalho foi caraterizado a localização e tráfego intracelular do peptídeo AtRALF1. / RALF is a 5kDa peptide hormone ubiquitous in different species of the plant kingdom that regulates cell expansion. AtRALF1 is a root-specific isoform of 37 present in Arabidopsis thaliana that negatively regulates root growth by intracellular calcium mobilization and inhibition of proton secretion (H+). In this work was studied the localization and intracellular trafficking of the AtRALF1 peptide.

RALF é um peptídeo hormonal de aproximadamente 5kDa presente em diferentes espécies do reino vegetal regulando negativamente a expansão celular. AtRALF1 é uma isoforma específica de raiz das 37 presentes em Arabidopsis thaliana que regula negativamente o crescimento de raízes seguido de uma mobilização de Ca+2 intracelular e inibição na secreção de prótons (H+). Neste trabalho foi caraterizado a localização e tráfego intracelular do peptídeo AtRALF1. / RALF is a 5kDa peptide hormone ubiquitous in different species of the plant kingdom that regulates cell expansion. AtRALF1 is a root-specific isoform of 37 present in Arabidopsis thaliana that negatively regulates root growth by intracellular calcium mobilization and inhibition of proton secretion (H+). In this work was studied the localization and intracellular trafficking of the AtRALF1 peptide.

Les étapes précoces du cycle réplicatif du VIH-1 sont assistées par des cofacteurs cellulaires dont la nature et la fonction restent mal connues. Nos travaux ont caractérisé la contribution de la protéine kinase dépendante de l'AMP cyclique (PKA), dans la cellule cible ou incorporée dans la particule virale VIH-1, dans les étapes post-entrée du cycle réplicatif. Les virus dépourvus d'activité PKA se caractérisent par un défaut de la synthèse de l'ADN proviral. En absence de Nef, la perte d'activité PKA associée aux particules VIH-1 induit une baisse plus modérée du pouvoir infectieux. En outre, le contournement des voies d'entrée classiques, par l'utilisation de particules pseudotypées, rend l'infectiosité indépendante de l'activité PKA. L'action de PKA s'exercerait donc au sein de la particule VIH-1 assemblée et impliquerait à la fois la protéine Nef et les voies de transport des complexes de transcription inverse au cours des étapes post-entrée. De plus, l'inhibition de l'activité PKA dans les cellules cibles entraîne également un défaut de synthèse de l'ADN proviral. Nos résultats indiquent que PKA agit comme un cofacteur de la transcription inverse. / The nature and function of cellular factors involved in post-entry steps of the HIV-1 life cycle are still poorly understood. We highlighted the role of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) in the early step of viral cycle, either as a host cellular protein in infected cells or as an incorporated protein into HIV-1 particles. PKA-deficient viruses failed to synthesize proviral DNA. In the absence of Nef, the loss of PKA activity associated to HIV-1 particles induces a minor diminution of infectiousness. Accordingly, VSV-G pseudotyped viruses, that use alternate entry pathway, exhibit full infectivity regardless of PKA deficiency. PKA action could therefore take place in the assembled HIV-1 particles, implying Nef protein and intracellular pathways of reverse transcription complexes. Moreover, the inhibition of PKA activity in target cells engenders a defective proviral DNA synthesis. Taken together, our data suggest that PKA may act as a cofactor required for HIV-1 reverse transcription.

La contraction musculaire est initiée par des relâchements massifs de calcium intracellulaire après stimulation par le motoneurone. Le couplage entre la stimulation neuronale et la libération de calcium dépend du complexe de relâchement du calcium (CRC), et est réalisé dans un compartiment particulier des cellules musculaires : la triade. Les triades sont formées par une apposition de trois systèmes membranaires, deux citernes terminales du réticulum sarcoplasmique qui encadrent un tubule transverse, qui est une invagination de la membrane plasmique. Toutes les protéines du CRC sont exclusivement localisées à la triade, cependant les mécanismes de formation des triades et d'adressage des protéines du CRC dans ce compartiment spécifique sont encore largement inconnus. Au niveau de la triade, des points de contacts réguliers avec les microtubules ont été observés, et la triadine, une protéine du CRC, a été proposée comme pouvant servir de lien entre les microtubules et les autres protéines du CRC.L'objectif de ce travail est d'étudier les mécanismes à l'origine de l'organisation des membranes de la triade, de la localisation des protéines du CRC, ainsi que l'implication des microtubules dans ces processus. Nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de deux protéines associées aux microtubules, Climp63 et MAP6. Des travaux de microscopie ont également permis de caractériser le comportement de chimères fluorescentes de triadine exprimées dans des myotubes de souris différenciés en culture.Climp63 en association avec la triadine, forme un lien entre les triades et le réseau microtubulaire. Cependant, la relation fonctionnelle entre le réseau de microtubules et le relâchement de calcium reste complexe à envisager. Si l’étude d’un modèle animal montre clairement que l’absence de la protéine MAP6 affecte la force musculaire, il n’a pas été possible de montrer que ce défaut est sous-tendu par un dysfonctionnement des microtubules. L’étude de la mise en place des triades a révélé que les microtubules participent à cette organisation, en supportant la mobilité des triades en cours de positionnement dans la fibre musculaire. Enfin, nous avons pu montrer que l’adressage de la triadine à la triade se fait par une diffusion de la protéine au sein du RS, et une rétention dans la citerne terminale grâce à un mécanisme complexe, potentiellement indépendant de RYR1, et nécessitant à la fois les domaines lumenal et cytosolique de la protéine. / Muscle contraction is initiated by massive intracellular calcium releases after motoneuron stimulation. The coupling between neuronal stimulation and calcium release depends on the calcium release complex (CRC), and takes place in a very special compartment of muscle cells : the triad. Triads are formed by the apposition of three membrane systems, two terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, on each side of a transverse tubule, which is an invagination of the plasma membrane. All CRC proteins are exclusively localized at the triads, however the mechanisms leading to triad formation, and CRC protein targeting at this special compartment are still largely unknown. At the triads, regular cross-talks with microtubules were observed, and triadin, one of the CRC protein, was proposed to serve as a link between microtubules and the other CRC proteins.The goal of this work is to study the mechanisms leading to the organization of triad membranes, and to triad CRC proteins targeting, as well as the involvement of microtubules in these processes. We focused our interest on the role of two microtubule-associated proteins, Climp63 and MAP6. Microscopy studies allowed us to characterize the behaviour of fluorescent triadin chimeras expressed in mouse myotubes, differentiated in culture.Climp63 when associated to triadin forms a link between triads and microtubules. However the functional relationship between microtubules and calcium releases remains complex to consider. Even if the study of an animal model shows clearly that the lack of MAP6 protein affects muscle force, we were not able to show that this defect depends on microtubule dysfunction. The study of triad set up revealed that microtubules participate in that organization, by sustaining triads mobility during positioning in the muscle cell. Finally we were able to show that triadin targeting to triads is done by diffusion of the protein in the SR membrane, and retention in the terminal cisternae thanks to a complex mechanism. This mechanism could be independant of RyR1, but needs the lumenal and cytosolic domains of the protein.

Ras is a central player in signal transduction that mediates cellular proliferation and differentiation. Recent evidence has shown that lipid and non-lipid modified domains participate in Ras traffic and that plasma membrane association is mediated by vectorial vesicular transport from the endomembrane system. ERp57, an ER chaperone, has been shown to specifically bind farnesylated Hras but not non-farnesylated Hras. The objective of this study was to determine if ERp57 participates in Ras trafficking and function. First, the effect of ERp57 knock down by siRNA technology on Hras function was studied; there was a reduction in ERp57 cellular levels that led to a decrease of active ras. Second, specific anti-ERp57 antibodies were delivered into 3T3 cells expressing GFP-ras chimeras to observe the effect on intracellular trafficking. Anti-ERp57 antibodies blocked Hras plasma membrane localization but not Kras suggesting that ERp57 may be involved in Hras intracellular trafficking and function.

Le transport intracellulaire du cholestérol et sa distribution correcte au niveau des différentes membranes sont essentiels pour assurer de nombreuses fonctions cellulaires. Malgré l’importance de ce transport les mécanismes de sa régulation restent encore mal connus. L’objectif de cette thèse était de mieux caractériser les acteurs du transport intracellulaire du cholestérol. Dans ce contexte, nous nous sommes intéressés à deux acteurs de ce transport : la dynamine et les Rab GTPases. Dans la première partie de la thèse nous avons utilisé le dynasore, un inhibiteur pharmacologique de la dynamine pour étudier le rôle de la dynamine dans le contrôle du transport endolysosomal dans les cellules HeLa et les macrophages humains. Nous avons ainsi confirmé le rôle de la dynamine dans la sortie du compartiment endolysosomal et la régulation de l’homéostasie du cholestérol. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle de Rab7 et de Rab9 dans le transport du cholestérol en utilisant la technique d’ARN interférence ainsi que l’expression de mutants dominant négatifs. Nous avons montré qu’en plus de son rôle classique dans les étapes tardives du transport du cholestérol, Rab7 contrôle les étapes précoces du transport endosomal. Enfin, nous avons évalué le rôle de Rab7 dans notre modèle de macrophages humains surchargés. Nous avons mis en évidence un effet limité de l’inactivation de Rab7 sur le contrôle de l’homéostasie du cholestérol mais à l’inverse un effet majeur pour l’efflux du cholestérol vers l’apo AI. En conclusion, notre étude a permis de mieux caractériser le transport vésiculaire du cholestérol et de démontrer son importance dans la régulation de l’homéostasie intracellulaire en cholestérol. Nos résultats permettent également d’établir le rôle critique de Rab7 dans le trafic des LDL au niveau des endosomes précoces. / Intracellular transport of cholesterol and its distribution within cellular membranes are essential to maintain correct cellular functions. Despite the importance of this transport, mechanisms that regulate cholesterol transport still poorly defined. The objectives of this thesis were to better characterize the actors of intracellular cholesterol trafficking. In this context, we focused our interest on two known actors of intracellular transport : dynamin and Rab GTPases. In the first part of this thesis, we used dynasore, a pharmacological dynamin inhibitor, to study the role of dynamin in the control of endolysosomal transport in HeLa cells and human macrophages. We confirmed the role of dynamin in endolysosomal sorting and cholesterol homeostasis regulation. In the second part of this thesis, we studied the role of Rab7 and Rab9 in the regulation of cholesterol transport using RNA interference and dominant negative mutants. We showed that in addition to it classical role in late steps of cholesterol transport, Rab7 controls also early steps of endosomal trafficking. Finally, we evaluated the role of Rab7 in our model of loaded human macrophages. We showed a weak impact of Rab7 inactivation on cholesterol homeostasis but a major effect on cholesterol efflux to apo AI. In conclusion, in this study we have better characterized the vesicular transport of cholesterol and demonstrated its importance in cholesterol intracellular homeostasis. Our results also establish that Rab7 plays a critical role in the sorting of LDL at the early endosome.

L’hépatite B, causée par le virus de l’hépatite B (VHB), est responsable d’un à deux millions de morts chaque année dans le monde. Le VHB occasionne des lésions importantes au niveau du foie, pouvant amener à la cirrhose et au carcinome hépatocellulaire. Ce virus, de la famille des hepadnavirus, contient une capside formée de 240 copies d’une même protéine : la protéine core. Des biopsies de patients infectés par le VHB montrent que la protéine de capside se localise soit dans le noyau soit dans le cytoplasme des cellules infectées. On s’accorde à dire qu’une localisation majoritairement cytoplasmique est liée à une aggravation de la maladie. Nous avons observé que, dans des cellules HuH-7, la protéine core seule est nucléaire alors qu’en contexte viral, elle se localise dans le cytoplasme. Après avoir vérifié que nos observations ne sont pas dues aux conditions de culture des cellules, nous avons démontré que la relocalisation de core est due à des facteurs viraux : la polymérase virale grâce à son domaine TP ainsi que la Tige/Boucle  présente sur l’ARN prégénomique. La localisation de core est aussi influencée par l’état de phosphorylation de ses sérines 157, 170 et 172.Ainsi, nous avons pu montrer à quel point le trafic de core était complexe et qu’il était régulé par divers facteurs viraux et cellulaires. Ces travaux permettront une étude plus approfondie des régulations du trafic intracellulaire de la protéine core et ainsi de faire évoluer plus favorablement l’hépatite B chez les patients infectés. / Hepatitis B is a liver inflammation caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is responsible of one to two millions deaths per year in the world. HBV is the cause of important liver damages and may lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.HBV is a member of hepadnaviral family. It has a capsid composed of 240 copies of the same protein: the core protein. In literature, patients’ biopsies showed that capsid is found either in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm or both compartments of hepatocytes. In general, a cytoplasmic localization is related to an advanced state of the disease.In our study, we observed that in HuH-7 cells, core protein alone has a nuclear localization, whereas in viral context it is essentially found in the cytoplasm. We verified that these observations were not due to culture conditions. Then, we demonstrated that the cytoplasmic localization of core was due to viral factors. The viral polymerase is implied by its TP domain. The second component is the viral pregenomic RNA, by its Epsilon stem loop structure. At last, core localization is also influenced by the phosphorylation state of its serines 157, 170 and 172.Thus, we demonstrated that the core protein traffic is very complex and regulated by different viral and cellular factors. This work will further study the regulation of intracellular trafficking of the core protein and allow a better outcome for the infected patients.

No description available.

O prion celular (PrPc) é uma glicoproteína ligada à membrana plasmática por uma âncora de GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol). A sua isoforma anormal (PrPsc) é uma molécula infecciosa que causa várias doenças neurodegenerativas em mamíferos. A etiologia dessas doenças está associada a uma mudança conformacional pós-traducional de PrPc que ocorre após sua internalização (Prusiner, 1998). Na tentativa de desvendar as funções fisiológicas de PrPc, nosso grupo tem identificado e caracterizado as interações celulares que PrPc participa. A primeira delas é a interação entre PrPc e STI1 (Stress Inducible Protein 1). Essa interação transduz sinalização por cAMP e PKA levando a neuroproteção contra morte celular programada (Chiarini e cols, 2002; Zanata e cols, 2002). A segunda é a interação específica que existe entre PrPc e as proteínas da matriz extracelular, laminina e vitronectina, contribuindo para os processos neuronais, tais como crescimento, manutenção (Graner e cols., 2000 a e b) e regeneração dos neuritos (Hajj e cols., submetido), além da formação de memória de curta e longa duração (Coitinho e cols., submetido). Na primeira parte deste trabalho, procuramos investigar os genes regulados pelos sinais resultantes dessas interações e também pela remoção de PrPc usando a técnica de \"differential display\'\' RT-PCR. Na segunda parte do trabalho, caracterizamos que a interação PrPc - laminina é capaz de induzir uma sinalização transitória de cálcio, a qual ocorre mesmo na ausência de cálcio do meio extracelular. PrPc é uma molécula que cicla continuamente entre a membrana plasmática e os compartimentos intracelulares. Estudos recentes têm correlacionado o processo de internalização de PrPc com alguns dos seus papeis fisiológicos, tais como, homeostase de Cu2 + (Brown, 2001 ), interação com receptor de laminina (Gauczynski e cols, 2001) e até na conversão de PrPc para PrPsc (McKinley e cols, 1991; Arnold e cols, 1995). Portanto, na terceira parte deste trabalho, caracterizamos a localização e o tráfego celular de PrPc mostrando que PrPc está localizado na membrana plasmática e em compartimentos intracelulares e que trafega pelo Golgi, membrana plasmática, endossomos iniciais e de reciclagem. Foram mapeados ainda domínios na região amino-terminal responsáveis pela internalização de PrPc e na região carboxi-terminal como participantes da via secretora. Este trabalho contribuiu para o esclarecimento de alguns eventos biológicos relacionados à sinalização e ao tráfego de PrPc. Estes achados são de grande importância para a determinação das funções celulares de PrPc e ainda dos mecanismos envolvidos com as doenças relacionadas com esta molécula. / The cellular prion protein (PrPc) is a glycoprotein anchored to the plasma membrane by GPI (Glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol). Its abnormal isoform (PrPsc) is the infectious protein responsible for several neurodegenerative diseases. The main etiology of the prion diseases is related to conformational changes in the PrPc molecule, which occur after its internalization (Prusiner, 1998). In order to elucidate the physiological functions of PrPc, our group identified and characterized interactions between PrPc and other cellular molecules. The first is the interaction between PrPc and STI 1 (Stress Inducible Protein 1). This interaction has an important role in the neuroprotection against apoptosis through cAMP and PKA signaling (Chiarini et al., 2002; Zanata et al., 2002). PrPc also interacts with proteins of the extracellular matrix such as laminin and vitronetin. These interactions contribute for neurite outgrowth, maintenance and regeneration (Graner et al., 2000 a and b; Hajj et al., submitted) and also in memory formation (Coitinho et al., submitted). In the first part of this work we have applied the differential dysplay RTPCR technique in order to identify genes that are regulated by PrPc - STI 1 interaction and also by the deletion of PrPc. In the second part we have demonstrated that PrPc-laminin interaction induces transient calcium signaling in neuronal cells, which occurs even in the absence of extracellular calcium. PrPc cycles continuously between the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments. This mechanism is associated with some of the physiological function of PrPc, such as Cu2+ homeostasis (Brown, 2001 ), interaction with laminin receptor (Gauczynski et al., 2001 ), and PrPc conversion into PrPsc (McKinley et al., 1991; Arnold et al., 1995). Thus, in the third part of this project, we have characterized the PrPc localization at the cell surface and in intracellular compartments. The protein trafficking through Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, early and recycling endosomes was also defined. Moreover, we have determinated that N-terminus PrPc domain is responsible for its internalization while C-terminus participates in PrPc delivery. Therefore, this work has contributed to elucidate biological events related to the cell signaling and trafficking of PrPc, which are important for the characterization of PrPc physiological functions and to understand the pathological mechanisms related to this molecule.