On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion into Ukraine under orders of Vladimir Putin. The invasion subsequently inspired a debate on the rationality behind this decision. The existing academic debate into the decision behind the invasion has identified both external and internal factors which can explain why this specific action may have been taken but has omitted a nuanced answer on clarifying the extent of Putin’s military actions. Prospect theory dictates that people under conditions of risk are more likely to be risk acceptant if they have experienced the context leading up to the decision to be one in which they have experienced losses. This thesis aims to explore how prospect theory can contribute to an understanding of Putin’s decision to invade Ukraine by employing a congruence analysis case-study approach. It concludes that the principles of prospect theory provide a substantiated explanation as to why Putin chose a full-scale invasion into Ukraine, demonstrating that Putin found himself in a domain of losses and opted for the option with the highest outcome uncertainty. Moreover, prospect theory also adds nuance to the existing academic debate by defining rationality as a scale with intervening factors, demonstrating that Putin’s decision-making rationality may have been impacted by his framing of losses.

Bien que connu en tant que pathogène bactérien porcin majeur et agent zoonotique responsable principalement de méningites, septicémies et de morts soudaines, Streptococcus suis a également été isolé chez une variété d’autres animaux tels que les ruminants. Malgré sa diversité génotypique et sérologique, des études taxonomiques récentes ont mené à la reclassification de 6 de ses sérotypes dont le sérotype 33, maintenant dénommé comme nouvelle espèce Streptococcus ruminantium. Contrairement à S. suis, S. ruminantium a principalement été décrit chez les ruminants comme pathogène responsable de diverses manifestations cliniques telles que des endocardites et des arthrites. En raison de sa description récente, plusieurs lacunes concernant ses caractéristiques biologiques et pathologiques demeurent. De plus, S. suis et S. ruminantium sont très difficiles à différencier l’un de l’autre par l’entremise des tests biochimiques traditionnellement utilisés dans les laboratoires de diagnostic. Ainsi, plusieurs souches de S. suisisolées de ruminants malades avant la mise à jour de la classification, s’avèrent mal identifiées. D’où la raison pour laquelle l’importance étiologique de S. ruminantium chez les ruminants reste incertaine. Pour y remédier, 14 isolats de S. suis provenant d’échantillons cliniques chez des ruminants au Canada, ont été reclassifiés en S. ruminantium selon les nouvelles analyses génétiques moléculaires décrites. À ces derniers s’ajoutent 7 isolats de S. ruminantium provenant de cas d’endocardites bovines au Japon, qui ont été également davantage caractérisés génotypiquement et phénotypiquement et leurs interactions avec différentes cellules de l’hôte ont été évaluées. En résumé, on a pu démontrer que tous les isolats étaient faiblement voire non encapsulés avec une surface cellulaire hydrophobe, ils avaient une grande capacité d’auto-agrégation et une habileté à produire du biofilm. Ces phénotypes pourraient contribuer à la pathogénèse de l’infection en intensifiant la capacité d’adhésion et d’invasion des cellules épithéliales et endothéliales et en augmentant la résistance à l’effet bactéricide du sang entier et à la phagocytose par les cellules immunitaires de l’hôte. Cependant, certains isolats étaient plus susceptibles que d’autres à la phagocytose, suggérant que d’autres mécanismes de protection seraient impliqués dans cette étape. Ainsi, cette étude aide à améliorer notre connaissance sur la pathogénicité et la virulence de S. ruminantium pour les maladies chez les ruminants. / Although Streptococcus suis is known as a major swine bacterial pathogen and zoonotic agent mainly responsible for meningitis, septicemia, and sudden death, it has also been isolated from a variety of other animals including ruminants. Despite its genotypical and serological diversity, recent taxonomic studies led to the reclassification of 6 S. suis serotypes such as S. suis serotype 33 currently renamed as the novel species Streptococcus ruminantium. Unlike S. suis, S. ruminantium has been mainly described in ruminants as a cause of endocarditis and arthritis. Because of its recent description, information on its biological and pathological characteristics remains unclear. Moreover, S. suis and S. ruminantium are not easily differentiated by traditional biochemical tests done in diagnostic laboratories. Hence, some S. suis isolates recovered from diseased ruminants before the updated classification, have been misidentified. Consequently, the aetiological importance of S. ruminantium in ruminants remains unknown. To address this,14 S. suis isolates from clinical samples of ruminants in Canada have been reclassified, based on the new genetic molecular testing described for the identification of S. ruminantium. In addition of them, 7 S. ruminantium isolates from bovine endocarditis in Japan, were further genotypically and phenotypically characterized and their interactions with various host cells were studied. Overall, we demonstrated that all isolates were poorly or non-capsulated with a high cell surface hydrophobicity, had a high capacity of self-aggregation and the ability to produce biofilm. These biological phenotypes might contribute to the pathogenesis of the infection by enhancing the adhesion/invasion capacity of both epithelial and endothelial cells, and by increasing the resistance to whole blood killing and phagocytosis by host immune cells. However, some isolates were more susceptible to the phagocytosis than others suggesting that other protective mechanisms might be implicated in this step. Taken together, this study will help to increase our understanding of the pathogenicity and the virulence of S. ruminantium in ruminant diseases.

Biodiversity is being lost around the world and anthropogenic activities, like non-native species introductions and urbanization, are among the leading causes of decline. Broadening our understanding of human-driven impacts on biodiversity can lead to more effective solutions and contribute towards stemming biodiversity losses. In this thesis, I explored the impacts of non-native species introductions and urbanization on butterfly-plant communities. I evaluated potential factors influencing the range expansion of a newly introduced species (Chapter 1), examined the role of urbanization in structuring biological communities (Chapter 2), and identified important ecological interactions between native and non-native species (Chapter 3). In my first chapter, I found that the newly introduced European Common Blue butterfly (Polyommatus icarus) was more abundant in urban and disturbed habitat that was unmown and where their preferred larval host plant (Lotus corniculatus), a non-native species, was present. I also found that P. icarus was not a strong flier relative to other butterfly species, suggesting that adult dispersal may not be a driving factor in range expansion. Instead, this species could expand its range in the future by colonizing habitats in developed regions across Canada given the association I found between P. icarus and disturbed habitat. In my second chapter, I found that urbanization led to the biotic homogenization of butterfly communities around Montréal, QC, favouring a few, highly abundant, non-native species. Homogenization was detected at both the taxonomic and functional levels and was driven by increases in P. icarus abundance in the more urban sites. In my third chapter, I found that non-native plants were well integrated into native butterfly nectar diets in an at-risk oak savanna ecosystem on Vancouver Island, BC and that usage of non-native plants increased when they were more available during the season. I also found that native butterflies visited non-native plants more often than flower availability predicted on its own, suggesting that butterflies may even prefer non-native nectar. Findings from my thesis research broaden our understanding of the ways in which butterfly communities can be influenced by human activities like urbanization and the introduction of non-native species, informing conservation efforts and directing future research needs.

Besides biochemical and molecular regulation, the migration and invasion of cells is controlled by the environmental mechanics and cellular mechanics. Hence, the mechanical phenotype of cells, such as fibroblasts, seems to be crucial for the migratory capacity in confined 3D extracellular matrices. Recently, we have shown that the migratory and invasive capacity of mouse embryonic fibroblasts depends on the expression of the Rho-GTPase Rac1, similarly it has been demonstrated that the Rho-GTPase Cdc42 affects cell motility. The p21-activated kinase (PAK) is an effector down-stream target of both Rho-GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42, and it can activate via the LIM kinase-1 its down-stream target cofilin and subsequently support the cell migration and invasion through the polymerization of actin filaments. Since Rac1 deficient cells become mechanically softer than controls, we investigated the effect of group I PAKs and PAK1 inhibition on cell mechanics in the presence and absence of Rac1. Therefore, we determined whether mouse embryonic fibroblasts, in which Rac1 was knockedout, and control cells, displayed cell mechanical alterations after treatment with group I PAKs or PAK1 inhibitors using a magnetic tweezer (adhesive cell state) and an optical cell stretcher (non-adhesive cell state). In fact, we found that group I PAKs and Pak1 inhibition decreased the stiffness and the Young’s modulus of fibroblasts in the presence of Rac1 independent of their adhesive state. However, in the absence of Rac1 the effect was abolished in the adhesive cell state for both inhibitors and in their nonadhesive state, the effect was abolished for the FRAX597 inhibitor, but not for the IPA3 inhibitor. The migration and invasion were additionally reduced by both PAK inhibitors in the presence of Rac1. In the absence of Rac1, only FRAX597 inhibitor reduced their invasiveness, whereas IPA3 had no effect. These findings indicate that group I PAKs and PAK1 inhibition is solely possible in the presence of Rac1 highlighting Rac1/PAK I (PAK1, 2, and 3) as major players in cell mechanics.

Viscoelasticity and its alteration in time and space has turned out to act as a key element in fundamental biological processes in living systems, such as morphogenesis and motility. Based on experimental and theoretical findings it can be proposed that viscoelasticity of cells, spheroids and tissues seems to be a collective characteristic that demands macromolecular, intracellular component and intercellular interactions. A major challenge is to couple the alterations in the macroscopic structural or material characteristics of cells, spheroids and tissues, such as cell and tissue phase transitions, to the microscopic interferences of their elements. Therefore, the biophysical technologies need to be improved, advanced and connected to classical biological assays. In this review, the viscoelastic nature of cytoskeletal, extracellular and cellular networks is presented and discussed. Viscoelasticity is conceptualized as a major contributor to cell migration and invasion and it is discussed whether it can serve as a biomarker for the cells’ migratory capacity in several biological contexts. It can be hypothesized that the statistical mechanics of intra- and extracellular networks may be applied in the future as a powerful tool to explore quantitatively the biomechanical foundation of viscoelasticity over a broad range of time and length scales. Finally, the importance of the cellular viscoelasticity is illustrated in identifying and characterizing multiple disorders, such as cancer, tissue injuries, acute or chronic inflammations or fibrotic diseases.

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