Un microgyromètre 3 axes permet avec une structure unique de mesurer la vitesse de rotation d’un objet autour des trois axes de l’espace. Les micro-gyromètres 3 axes existants sont peu nombreux et typiquement résonants, fabriqués en technologie silicium par micro-usinage de surface, à transductions électro-statiques, et conçus pour des applications de fort volume ou la taille et le coût sont des critères majeurs. Dans cette thèse nous avons étudié la transduction et le procédé de fabrication d’un gyromètre résonant 3 axes à actionnement et détection piézoélectriques, fabriqué par micro-usinage de volume dans du GaAs semi-isolant, et dont les performances sont potentiellement très supérieures à l’état de l’art tout en conservant une taille et un coût limité. Ce microgyromètre nécessite une transduction piézoélectrique 3D et un routage des connexions électriques qui ont été modélisés et optimisés pour réduire les couplages parasites entre les modes de détection et le mode pilote. Un procédé original de fabrication collective du microgyromètre a été développé, modélisé et caractérisé. Ce procédé utilise notamment une gravure ionique réactive très profonde et traversante du GaAs dans un plasma BCl3-Cl2. Il est démontré pour la première fois qu’une gravure anisotrope traversante de tranchées de 450 μm de profondeur peut être réalisée grâce à une optimisation des paramètres de gravure et à l’utilisation d’un masque en résine. Un procédé original de dépôt et de délimitation d’électrodes Au/Cr sur les flancs verticaux d’une structure gravée par évaporation sous incidence oblique avec rotation du substrat et à travers un masque pochoir en film sec photosensible a aussi été étudié en détail. Une caractérisation fine de la structure cristalline, de la résistivité et des contraintes mécaniques avant, pendant et après recuit des couches Au/Cr poreuses évaporées sous incidence oblique a été menée. Des micro-gyromètres complets avec tout le système de transduction 3D ont été réalisés. Des premières caractérisations par vibrométrie optique hors du plan et dans le plan des gyromètres réalisés démontrent des résultats encourageants. Enfin, différentes voies d’amélioration de la conception et du procédé sont proposées. / A 3 axis gyroscope allows, with a single mechanical structure, the measurement of rotation rates of an object around 3 perpendicular spatial axes. Existing 3 axis microgyroscopes are scarce and typically resonating, made in silicon technology by surface micromachining, use electrostatic transductions and are designed for high volume applications where size and cost are major characteristics. In this thesis we investigated the transduction and fabrication process of a resonating 3 axis microgyroscope having piezoelectric actuation and detection, made in semi-insulating GaAs by bulk micromachining, and with performances potentially much higher than state of the art while limiting the size and cost. This microgyroscope requires a 3D piezoelectric transduction and circuitry which were modelled and optimized to reduce cross-talks effects. An original batch fabrication process was developed, modelled and characterized. This process notably makes use of very deep through wafer reactive ion etching of GaAs in a BCl3-Cl2 plasma. It is demonstrated for the first time that a through wafer highly anisotropic etching of 450 μm deep trenches can be realized owing to etching parameters optimization and the use of a resist masking layer. An original deposition and patterning process of Au/Cr electrodes on the vertical walls of an etched structure by oblique evaporation on rotated substrate through a dry film shadow mask has also been investigated in details. A fine characterization of the crystallographic structure, resistivity and mechanical stress before, during and after annealing of Au/Cr films evaporated under oblique incidence has been performed. Full microgyroscopes with the whole 3D tranduction system were realized. Preliminary characterizations of realized gyroscopes by out-of-plane and in-plane optical vibrometry demonstrated promising results. Finally, different ways to improve the design and fabrication process are proposed.

Les progrès récents des nanotechnologies permettent d'envisager de nouvelles générations de diodes laser. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier l'apport des cristaux photoniques bidimensionnels pour explorer la faisabilité d'un réseau monolithique de diodes laser tout cristal photonique émettant au voisinage de 2,3 µm en filière GaSb. Chaque laser doit répondre à un certain nombre de critères : une émission monomode à une longueur d'onde stable et précise, une émission fine spectralement avec une puissance de sortie élevée, une longueur d'onde accordable, présentant aucun saut de mode sur la gamme d'accordabilité, un fonctionnement à température ambiante, sous pompage électrique et en régime continu. Ces critères répondent au cahier des charges de la technique de spectroscopie d'absorption à diodes laser accordables multiplexées (MTDLAS : Multiplexed Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy). La technique de MTDLAS est ici mise en œuvre pour les applications de détection de gaz dans le moyen infra-rouge (MIR), soit la gamme de longueur d'onde allant de 2 à 5 µm. Cette gamme de longueur d'onde présente plusieurs fenêtres de transparence (autour de 2,3 µm et de 3,4 à 4 µm) où l'absorption par la vapeur d'eau et le dioxyde de carbone est très faible. L'existence de ces fenêtres est mise à profit pour la détection de molécules gazeuses de l'atmosphère, telles que le monoxyde de carbone ou le méthane. Pour mes travaux de thèse, la longueur d'onde d'émission laser retenue est de 2,3 µm. Cette longueur d'onde correspond à la fenêtre de transparence pour la détection notamment du CH4, du CO et du HF. Ainsi, ce mémoire présente la conception de diodes laser tout cristal photonique, et le développement d'un procédé de fabrication de ces diodes lasers, qui a mené à la réalisation d'une série de composants. Nous montrons qu'une déformation de la maille photonique, associée à une optimisation de la largeur du guide, permet d'obtenir un fonctionnement monomode stable. Se basant sur ce principe, plusieurs géométries de mailles de cristaux photoniques ont été étudiées. Puis, nous nous attachons à lever le verrou technologique de la gravure profonde à fort rapport d'aspect dans les alliages AlGaAsSb. Pour cela, nous présentons des études paramétriques de gravure, conduisant à la mise au point d'un procédé optimisé de gravure profonde. Des profondeurs de gravure de 3,4 µm pour des trous de 370 nm de diamètre, soit un rapport d'aspect de plus de 9, ont ainsi pu être atteintes. Cette étape critique de gravure a été insérée dans un procédé technologique de fabrication de diodes laser tout cristal photonique, que nous avons mis au point. Cela a mené à la réalisation d'une série de composants. / Recent advances in nanotechnology allow considering new generations of laser diodes. The purpose of this thesis is to study the contribution of two-dimensional photonic crystals to design and fabricate a monolithic array of laser diodes emitting near 2.3 µm in GaSb system. Each laser in the array has to respond to stringent criteria : a stable and precisely predefined single-mode emission wavelength, high output power, tunable wavelength with no mode hopping over the tunability range. Moreover, such device should operate at room temperature, under electrical pumping and continuous regime. These criteria respond to the specifications of the technique of Multiplexed Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (MTDLAS). The MTDLAS technique is here implemented for gas sensing applications in the Mid-wavelength infrared (MidIR), corresponding to the wavelength range from 2 to 5 microns. This wavelength range contains two transparency windows (around 2.3 µm and from 3.4 to 4 µm), where the absorption by water vapor and carbon dioxide is reduced. The existence of these windows is harnessed for the detection of gaseous molecules in the atmosphere, such as carbon monoxide or methane. For my thesis work, the chosen wavelength of laser emission is 2.3 µm. This wavelength corresponds to a transparency window allowing detection of CH4, CO and HF. This dissertation presents the design of all photonic crystal laser diode, and the development of a manufacturing process of such device, which led to the production of a set of components. We show that the engineering of the photonic lattice combined with an optimization of the width of the laser waveguide provide stable, single-mode emission operation. Based on this principle, several geometries for photonic crystal lattice were studied. Then we tackle the technological challenge of deep etching with high aspect ratio in AlGaAsSb alloys. For this, we present parametric studies of etching, leading to the development of an optimized process for deep etching. We succeed to etch holes of 370 nm diameter and 3.4 µm depths, corresponding at an aspect ratio in excess of 9. We have developed a technological manufacturing process of all photonic crystal laser diodes, where this critical etching step has been successful inserted. This led to the realization of a set of components.

This thesis focuses on employing a new patterning technique called block copolymer lithography to transfer the nano-porous pattern from the polymer template to the underlying oxide thin film. Nano-porous block copolymer films are produced by spin-coating polymer solution on wafers followed by annealing, UV exposure and development processes. Reactive-ion etching is then used to etch the oxide films based on the pattern of polymer template and the polymer is then removed. The obtained oxide microstructure is characterized by SEM, showing a nanomesh of microdomains with the same hole size and density as the initial block copolymer layer. The advantages of block copolymer lithography include uniform nanopatterning, cost efficiency and simple processing. The nano-porous oxide thin films could be used as hard mask for nanopatterning in microelectronics and for energy storage applications. / Denna avhandling fokuserar på användningen av en ny mönstringsteknik som kallas block-sampolymerlitografi som används för att överföra nano-porösa mönster från polymermaller till en underliggande oxidtunnfilm. Nano-porösa blocksampolymerfilmer framställs genom spinbeläggningspolymerlösning på skivor följt av glödgning, UV-exponering och utvecklingsprocesser. Reaktionjon etsning används sedan för att etsa oxidfilmerna baserat på mönstret av polymermaller och därefter blir polymeren avlägsnad. Den erhållna oxidmikrostrukturen karakteriseras av SEM, som visar en nanomesh av mikrodomäner med samma hålstorlek och densitet som det ursprungliga blocksampolymerskiktet. Fördelarna med block-sampolymerlitografi innefattar likformig nanomönstring, kostnadseffektivitet och enkel bearbetning. De nanoporösa oxidtunnfilmerna kan användas som en hard mask för nanomönstring i mikroelektronik och för energilagringsapplikationer.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Entwicklung und Herstellung von Fabry-Pérot Interferometern (FPI) für die spektrale Analyse von Gasen und Flüssigkeiten. Die FPI werden miniaturisiert mittels Siliziumtechnologie hergestellt und ermöglichen kleine Mikrospektrometer mit hohem Auflösungsvermögen. Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht Technologie- und Herstellungskonzepte für den sichtbaren (VIS) und infraroten (IR) Spektralbereich mit jeweils unterschiedlichen Reflektorkonzepten. Im VIS-Spektralbereich erfolgt neben der Entwicklung von Bragg-Reflektoren auch die Betrachtung von strukturierten, dielektrischen Membrangittern und strukturierten Metallgittern auf dielektrischen Membranen für eine Einsatzmöglichkeit im FPI. Dabei wird ebenfalls die Entwicklung einer Herstellungs- und Strukturierungstechnologie für hochbrechendes Titandioxid durchgeführt, um einen Bragg-Reflektor mit höheren Brechzahlkontrast zu realisieren. Im IR-Spektralbereich stellen drei Bragg-Reflektorvarianten aus polykristallinem Silizium und Luft den Inhalt dieser Dissertation dar. Die hergestellten Reflektoren werden hinsichtlich ihrer Funktion messtechnisch charakterisiert und die Strukturintegration in einem FPI und Etalon anhand von ausgewählten Reflektoren vorgestellt.

Three ionic liquids (ILs), trihexyltetradecylphosphonium tetrafluoroborate (TTPT), N-butyl-4-methylpyridinium tetrafluoroborate (BMPT), and 1-methyl-3- octylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (MOIC), were utilized to prepare sol- gel sorbent coatings. Non-polar polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and polar poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PolyTHF) and bis[(3-methyldimethoxy-silyl)propyl] polypropylene oxide (BMPO) polymers were employed to develop novel ionic liquidmediated sol- gel hybrid organic- inorganic sorbents. The novel sorbents were first tested as coatings for capillary microextraction off-line hyphenated to gas chromatography. To gain an understanding of the role of the ionic liquids in the sol-gel process, the preconcentration abilities of these novel coatings were investigated for several classes of compounds utilizing CME-GC. This was accomplished by comparing GC peak areas of a series of analytes extracted on the ionic liquid mediated sol-gel CME coatings with that of analogous peak areas obtained on sol- gel coatings prepared without the ionic liquid. The morphology of these coatings was compared using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging data. Overall, the ionic liquid-mediated sol- gel coatings had more porous morphologies than the sol-gel coatings prepared without ionic liquid. The PDMS andBMPO sol-gel coatings prepared with ionic liquid in the sol solution provided enhanced extraction sensitivity reflected in higher preconcentration effects and lower detection limits than the sol- gel coatings prepared without the ionic liquid. The polar IL-mediated BMPO sol- gel sorbent was further investigated by exploring the extraction profile and thermal stability of these coatings. A further application of ionic liquid-mediated sol-gel sorbents could be as stationary phases in a microchip-based separation system. Towards this goal, microfluidic channels were fabricated in glass substrates using microelectromechanical engineering. Spiral and serpentine channels were etched in Pyrex and fused silica wafers using wet and deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) techniques. Microfabrication protocols such as the use of hard mask and etching times were investigated for both techniques. DRIE produced microfluidic channels that had an etch quality that was superior to wet etched channels. Thus, the ultimate microchip-based separation system should by fabricated using DRIE.

Thin films are produced from layers of materials ranging from nanometres to micrometres in height. They are increasingly common and are being used in integrated circuit design, optical coatings, protective coatings, and environmental sensing. Thin films can be fabricated using a variety of methods involving chemical reactions or physical transport of matter. Glancing angle deposition (GLAD) thin films are produced using physical vapour deposition techniques under high vacuum conditions where exploitation of the geometric conditions between the source and the substrate causes enhanced atomic self shadowing to produce structured thin films. This work deals with the modification of these films, emph{in situ} by altering growing conditions through substrate temperatures control, or post-deposition through reactive ion etching (RIE). The first part of the thesis deals with the modification of TiO$_2$ GLAD humidity sensors using RIE with CF$_4$. The data presented demonstrates improved response times to step changes in humidity. Characterization revealed response times of better then 50~ms (instrument-limited measurement). An etch recipe for complete removal of TiO$_2$ was also demonstrated with shadow masking to transfer patterns into GLAD films. The subsequent chapter focuses on modification of thin film growth conditions by increasing adatom mobility. A radiative heating system was designed and implemented with the ability to achieve chuck temperatures of 400$^circ$C. Capping layers on top of GLAD films were grown to demonstrate effects of emph{in situ} heating, and a quantitative analysis of crack reduction with increased temperatures is presented. Lithographic pattern transfer onto a capped GLAD film was demonstrated. Opposite to the goal of the preceding chapter, the focus of the final experimental chapter was to limit adatom mobility. A LN$_2$-based cooling system was designed and implemented for the purpose of studying the growth by GLAD of lower melting point materials, which under regular growth conditions do not form well-defined structures. Chuck temperatures of $-60$$^circ$C can be achieved during deposition while still allowing substrate rotation. The growth of helical copper films was used to demonstrate the effects of emph{in situ} substrate cooling. / Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and Nanotechnology

Photonic crystals (PhCs) are structures periodic in thedielectric constant. They exhibit a photonic bandgap, i.e., arange of wavelengths for which light propagation is forbidden.Engineering of defects in the PhC lattice offers new ways toconfine and guide light. PhCs have been manufactured usingsemiconductors and other material technologies. This thesisfocuses on two-dimensional PhCs etched in InP-based materials.Only recently, such structures were identified as promisingcandidates for the realization of novel and advanced functionsfor optical communication applications. The primary focus was on fabrication and characterization ofPhC structures in the InP/GaInAsP/InP material system. Thedemands on fabrication are very high: holes as small as100-300nm in diameter have to be etched at least as deep as 2µm. Thus, different etch processes had to be explored andspecifically developed for InP. We have implemented an etchingprocess based on Ar/Cl2chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE), thatrepresents the state of the art PhC etching in InP. Different building blocks were manufactured using thisprocess. A transmission loss of 10dB/mm for a PhC waveguide, areflection of 96.5% for a 4-row mirror and a record qualityfactor of 310 for a 1D cavity were achieved for this materialsystem. With an etch depth of 4.5 µm, optical loss wasfound to be close to the intrinsic limit. PhC-based opticalfilters were demonstrated using (a) a Fabry-Pérot cavityinserted in a PhC waveguide and (b) a contra-directionalcoupler. Lag effect in CAIBE was utilized positively to realizehigh quality PhC taper sections. Using a PhC taper, a couplingefficiency of 70% was demonstrated from a standard ridgewaveguide to a single line defect PhC waveguide. During the course of this work, InP membrane technology wasdeveloped and a Fabry-Pérot cavity with a quality factorof 3200 was demonstrated. Keywords:photonic crystals, photonic bandgap materials,indium phosphide, dry etching, chemically assisted ion beametching, reactive ion etching, electron beam lithography,photonic integrated circuits, optical waveguides, resonantcavities, optical filtering, finite difference time domain,plane wave expansion.

High aspect ratio silicon etching used for DRAM manufacturing still remains as one of the biggest challenges in semiconductor fabrication, requiring well understood and characterized process fundamentals. In this study, physical and chemical interactions during etching silicon in capacitively coupled plasma discharges were investigated in detail for different HBr/NF3 mixed chemistries for single frequency as well as dual frequency operation and medium discharge pressures inside an industrial MERIE CCP reactor typically used for DRAM fabrication. Utilization of the dual frequency concept for separate control of ion energy and ion flux, as well as the impact on discharge properties and finally on etching at relevant substrate surfaces were studied systematically. The complex nature of multi frequency rf sheaths was both analyzed experimentally by applying mass resolved ion energy analysis, and from simulation of ion energy distributions by using a Hybrid Plasma Sheath Model. Discharge composition and etch processes were investigated by employing standard mass spectrometry, Appearance Potential Mass Spectrometry, Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectroscopy, rf probe measurements, gravimetry and ellipsometry. An etch model is developed to explain limitations of silicon etching in HBr/NF3 discharges to achieve highly aniostropic etching. / Siliziumätzen mit hohen Aspektverhältnissen zur Herstellung von DRAM-Speicherstrukturen stellt nach wie vor eine der größten Herausforderungen in der Halbleiterherstellung dar und erfordert ein grundlegendes Prozessverständnis. Diese Studie beinhaltet eine umfassende und detaillierte Untersuchung physikalischer und chemischer Wechselwirkungen von Siliziumätzprozessen in kapazitiv gekoppelten HBr/NF3-Gasentladungen in einem kommerziellen, typischerweise für die DRAM-Fertigung eingesetzten MERIE CCP Reaktor mit Ein- und Zweifrequenzanregung bei mittleren Entladungsdrücken. Die Anwendung eines Zweifrequenzkonzeptes zur separaten Kontrolle von Ionenenergie und Ionenstromdichte, als auch deren Einfluss auf die Entladungseigenschaften und letztendlich auf das Ätzverhalten auf relevanten Substratoberflächen wurden systematisch untersucht. Die komplexe Natur von mehrfrequenzangeregten HF-Randschichten wurde sowohl experimentell über eine Anwendung von massenaufgelöster Ionenenergieanalyse als auch rechnerisch über Simulationen von Ionenenergieverteilungsfunktionen mit Hilfe eines hybriden Plasmarandschichtmodells analysiert. Gaszusammensetzungen verschiedener Entladungen und Ätzprozesse wurden mit Hilfe von Standard-Massenspektrometrie, Schwellwert-Massenspektrometrie, Quantenkaskaden-Laserabsorptionsspektroskopie, HF-Sondenmessungen, Gravimetrie und Ellipsometrie charakterisiert. Eine neuartige Modellvorstellung zum Siliziumätzen in HBr/NF3-Entladungsgemischen liefert eine plausible Erklärung für die Limitierung der Ätzrate zum Erreichen eines hoch anisotropen Ätzverhaltens.

<p>Photonic crystals (PhCs) are structures periodic in thedielectric constant. They exhibit a photonic bandgap, i.e., arange of wavelengths for which light propagation is forbidden.Engineering of defects in the PhC lattice offers new ways toconfine and guide light. PhCs have been manufactured usingsemiconductors and other material technologies. This thesisfocuses on two-dimensional PhCs etched in InP-based materials.Only recently, such structures were identified as promisingcandidates for the realization of novel and advanced functionsfor optical communication applications.</p><p>The primary focus was on fabrication and characterization ofPhC structures in the InP/GaInAsP/InP material system. Thedemands on fabrication are very high: holes as small as100-300nm in diameter have to be etched at least as deep as 2µm. Thus, different etch processes had to be explored andspecifically developed for InP. We have implemented an etchingprocess based on Ar/Cl₂chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE), thatrepresents the state of the art PhC etching in InP.</p><p>Different building blocks were manufactured using thisprocess. A transmission loss of 10dB/mm for a PhC waveguide, areflection of 96.5% for a 4-row mirror and a record qualityfactor of 310 for a 1D cavity were achieved for this materialsystem. With an etch depth of 4.5 µm, optical loss wasfound to be close to the intrinsic limit. PhC-based opticalfilters were demonstrated using (a) a Fabry-Pérot cavityinserted in a PhC waveguide and (b) a contra-directionalcoupler. Lag effect in CAIBE was utilized positively to realizehigh quality PhC taper sections. Using a PhC taper, a couplingefficiency of 70% was demonstrated from a standard ridgewaveguide to a single line defect PhC waveguide.</p><p>During the course of this work, InP membrane technology wasdeveloped and a Fabry-Pérot cavity with a quality factorof 3200 was demonstrated.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>photonic crystals, photonic bandgap materials,indium phosphide, dry etching, chemically assisted ion beametching, reactive ion etching, electron beam lithography,photonic integrated circuits, optical waveguides, resonantcavities, optical filtering, finite difference time domain,plane wave expansion.</p>

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