The objectives of this project were:<br />1.����To compare the drying cost and drying time for oak and poplar pallets for the following mold mitigation strategies for hardwood pallets: air drying, forced air drying (fan shed), kiln drying to 25% moisture content and chemical treatment, and<br />2.����Develop and evaluate a procedure for preventing and controlling mold growth on heat treated hardwood pallets<br />Twenty red oak pallets and twenty yellow-poplar pallets were tested for each drying method to compare costs and to determine drying times. �Additional pallets were obtained to conduct a more thorough air drying procedure. �Drying data was extrapolated to allow estimates of the drying time from green (83% moisture content for poplar and 64% moisture content for oak) to 25%. �<br />After the pallets reached the desired 25% moisture content, they were placed in a 40�" enclosed trailer, inoculated with mold (Aspergillus, Stachybotrys, and Penicillium) and were left undisturbed for a period of 14 days. �After the 14 day incubation period, the pallets were inspected for mold using the ASTM D-4445 Standard Test Method for Fungicides for Controlling Sapstain and Mold on Unseasoned Lumber. �<br />A comparison of drying costs was then conducted to determine which method was the most cost efficient based on the data obtained in this study. �The cost to treat the pallets with each treatment was calculated including electrical cost, labor, and tax values. �In addition to the cost comparison, a Net Present Value (NPV) was calculated to determine which method produced the best outcome over a longer period of time.<br />Two heat treatment and drying schedules were then developed to meet both IPPC-ISPM #15 requirements and achieve the desired 25% moisture content with minimal degrade. �This was accomplished by testing several HT/drying schedules on green yellow-poplar and white oak pallets until the pallets met the criteria for being heat treated and had minimal degrade. �The schedules developed are a modified oak HT/KD schedule that required 30 hours to complete and a modified poplar HT/KD schedule that required 16 hours to complete.<br />The results demonstrated that that mold would not grow on the pallets stored in an enclosed container when the dew point is not reached. Air-drying pallets, chemical application in conjunction with air-drying pallets, fan shed drying pallets and kiln drying pallets to a 19-24% moisture content was demonstrated to prevent mold growth on oak and yellow poplar pallets. Estimates for the time required to dry yellow-poplar and oak pallets to 19% and 25% moisture content were developed for air-drying, forced air-drying and kiln drying for the conditions experienced in Blacksburg, VA between 7/30/2008 and 11/10/2008. Air-drying pallets was found to have the lowest daily operational cost but not the lowest total drying cost. �Fan shed drying had the lowest drying cost to achieve 25% moisture content. �Kiln drying was the most expensive daily and total cost, but yielded the fastest method of drying pallets to 25% moisture content. A NPV cost comparison showed that over a 3 year (36 month) time period, fan shed drying is the most cost effective method of drying pallets based on the values used in this study. Given the environmental conditions experienced between 7/30/2008 and 11/10/2008, no mold grew on the air-dried, fan shed, and kiln dried pallets during the drying process. <br /> / Master of Science

This thesis investigates the application of latent variable methods to three combustion processes. Multivariate analysis of flame images and process data is performed to predict important quality parameters and monitor flame stability. The motivation behind this work is to decrease operational costs and greenhouse gases in these energy intensive processes. The three combustion processes studied are a lime kiln, a basic oxygen furnace and a coal-fired boiler. In lime kiln operation, the main goal is to stabilize final product temperature in order to reduce fouling and energy costs. Due to long process dynamics, prediction of product temperature is required at least one hour in advance for potential use in a control scheme. Several methods for extracting features from flame images were investigated for the prediction of the temperature. The best method is then combined with process data in a PLS model that also incorporates dynamic information. The analysis revealed that prediction one hour into the future is successful using latent variable methods. In the basic oxygen furnace analysis, the main goal is to predict end-point carbon of the batch process. Termination of the batch as soon as the desired carbon is attained reduces oxygen consumption and thus operational cost. Traditional image analysis is used to identify a constant field of view in the flame images. Multivariate image feature extraction methods were then used in combination with process data to successfully predict the final carbon content of the heat. The coal-fired boiler analysis focuses on monitoring of flame stability at different production and air to fuel levels of the boiler. Prediction of energy efficiency and off-gas chemistry from flame images is also investigated. An unexpected result was the ability to use the installed cameras for localized fouling monitoring. This thesis showed that the use of multivariate analysis of flame images and process data in combustion process is very promising. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

A geração de resíduos sólidos é inerente ao desenvolvimento humano. O concreto armado é um dos materiais mais utilizados pelo homem e tem o cimento Portland como seu principal constituinte, o qual é produzido pela moagem de clínquer e gesso. O clínquer pode ser definido como um mineral artificial, obtido a partir das reações físico-químicas de calcário, argila e corretivos a altas temperaturas, em forno rotativo industrial, mediante a queima de combustíveis fósseis. No início da década de 70 foram realizadas as primeiras experiências de substituição de combustíveis fósseis por resíduos industriais nos Estados Unidos e países europeus, através da técnica denominada co-processamento, resultando na manufatura de um produto ao mesmo tempo em que os resíduos eram eliminados. O co-processamento se baseia na recuperação da energia disponível nos resíduos, substituindo parte daquela fornecida pelos combustíveis tradicionais ou na substituição de matérias-primas por resíduos com características químicas semelhantes àquelas normalmente empregadas na produção do clínquer. No estado de São Paulo as primeiras iniciativas para a utilização de resíduos industriais em fornos de clínquer ocorreram no início da década de 90. A partir de 1997 os órgãos ambientais de alguns estados brasileiros normatizaram procedimentos de licenciamento da atividade que foi, posteriormente, uniformizada por norma em âmbito federal. No ano de 1995 a Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande/SP, Brasil, iniciou os procedimentos visando a substituição parcial dos combustíveis utilizados nos fornos rotativos por uma mistura de resíduos industriais. No período de 1995 a 2002 foram realizadas campanhas de amostragens em chaminés para avaliação das emissões atmosféricas dos dois fornos de produção de clínquer. A análise dos resultados obtidos associada às demais informações disponíveis de monitoramento das características das matérias-primas e combustíveis utilizados, bem como dos produtos finais, clínquer e cimento, não evidenciou alterações significativas nos níveis de emissões atmosféricas, sobretudo de material particulado e óxidos de enxofre, que pudessem ser associadas à utilização dos resíduos. Foram confirmadas as baixas emissões de inorgânicos e evidenciado o papel representado pelos resíduos no aporte dessas substâncias no sistema-forno, concluindo-se que esse aporte pode ser tão ou mais importante pela via da alimentação da farinha, cujos teores estão associados às características das jazidas minerais utilizadas. Foi também confirmada a alta eficiência do sistema-forno na destruição e remoção dos compostos orgânicos perigosos alimentados durante os testes de queima. / The production of industrial residues in inherent to the human development. The cement concrete is one of the most used material, manly the type portland cement, which is constituted by grinding clinker and gypsum together. Clinker can be defined as an artificial mineral obtained by applying physico-chemical reactions, at very high temperatures, to an appropriated mixture of limestone, clay, and some other materials in a rotating industrial kiln wich burns fossil fuels. In the early 1970 decade occurred the first experiences substituting fossil fuels by organic residues in USA and Europe through a technique named co-processing that results the production of certain manufacture while eliminates residues. Co-processing is based in the recovery of thermal energy and/or the mass of some constituents from some residues, with the same chemical characteristics of normal sources of energy, then economizing fuels and mass constituents and making better use of residues, otherwise useless and environmentally polluters. In the state of São Paulo this practice began in early 1990 decade and by 1997 it was started the standardization of the rules for its use in some units of the federation. Later this activity was regulated by nationally approved standard rules. In 1995 the industry Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande (CCRG), a cement plant located in the city of Ribeirão Grande, São Paulo state, Brazil, started procedures searching the partial substitution of the normal fuels by a mixture of industrial residues in its two rotating kilns. The gaseous emissions from the chimneys of these two clinker kilns were studied from 1995 to 2002 about the use of residues as part of the fuel. Analyses of the final results associated with other informations concerning to the quality of raw minerals, fuels and products did not show significant alterations in atmospheric emissions, mainly for particulate material and sulfur oxides, related with the use of residues. The emissions of inorganic continued to be low and not significantly altered by the presence of residues. It was possible to conclude that the alterations in inorganic emissions depend more from the quality of the raw minerals feed in the kilns, which is more difficult to control, than from the presence of residues being burn with the fuel. It was shown a high efficiency in the destruction of dangerous organic compounds feed in the cement kilns, under test conditions.

Scheduling in the context of manufacturing systems has become increasingly impor- tant in order for organizations to achieve success in dynamic and competitive scenarios. Scheduling can be described as allocation of available jobs over resources to meet the performance criteria defined in a domain. Our research work fo cuses on scheduling a given set of three-dimensional cylindrical items, each characterized by width wj , height hj, and depth dj , onto parallel non-identical rectangular heat treatment kilns, such that the capacities of the kilns is optimally used. The problem is strongly NP-hard as it generalizes the (one-dimensional) Bin Packing Problem (1BP), in which a set of n positive values wj has to be partitioned into the minimum number of subsets so that the total value in each subset does not exceed the bin capacity W. The problem has been formulated as a variant of the 3D-BPP by following the MILP approach, and we propose a weight optimization heuristic that produces solutions comparable to that of the LP problem, in addition to reducing the computational complexity. Finally, we also propose a Decomposition Algorithm (DA) and validate the perfor- mance effectiveness of our heuristic. The numerical analyses provides useful insights that influence the shop-floor decision making process.

Το κεφάλαιο 1 αποτελεί εισαγωγή του αναγνώστη σε θέματα που αφορούν τα ηλεκτρικά κινητήρια συστήματα. Αρχικά πραγματοποιείται μια σύντομη ιστορική αναδρομή και περιγραφή της εξέλιξης αυτών, ενώ στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζονται οι θεματικές ενότητες που αποτελούν τη συμβολή της παρούσας διατριβής όπως ο έλεγχος των κινητήριων συστημάτων και η διάγνωση σφαλμάτων σε αυτά. Τέλος, υπογραμμίζονται οι στόχοι που ορίστηκαν και εκπληρώνονται στο πλαίσιο της εργασίας αυτής. Στο κεφάλαιο 2 γίνεται μια γενική περιγραφή των σταδίων παραγωγής τσιμέντου, παρουσιάζεται η χαρακτηριστική ροπής-στροφών του κλιβάνου με βάση τη διαθέσιμη βιβλιογραφία, αναλύονται λεπτομερώς οι τοπολογίες συστημάτων μετάδοσης που εγκαθίστανται σε κλιβάνους μικρής και μεγάλης παραγωγικής δύναμης, αναδεικνύονται οι προδιαγραφές που υφίστανται κατά την επιλογή των ηλεκτρικών κινητήριων μηχανών και τέλος τονίζονται οι απαιτήσεις του ελέγχου των κινητήριων μηχανών, έτσι όπως τίθενται από τη βιομηχανία τσιμέντου. Στο κεφάλαιο 3 περιγράφεται το μαθηματικό μοντέλο που αναπτύχθηκε και χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την προσομοίωση της λειτουργίας του συστήματος και το οποίο απαρτίζεται από τα επιμέρους μοντέλα του κλιβάνου, του συστήματος μετάδοσης της κίνησης, των τριφασικών ασύγχρονων μηχανών, των ηλεκτρονικών μετατροπέων ισχύος καθώς και του ελέγχου των κινητήριων μηχανών. Στο κεφάλαιο 4 περιγράφονται τα υποσυστήματα του υπό κλίμακα συστήματος με σκοπό την εξομοίωση, που κατασκευάστηκε στο εργαστήριο με στόχο την επαλήθευση των αποτελεσμάτων της προσομοίωσης στον ηλεκτρονικό υπολογιστή. Στο κεφάλαιο 5 γίνεται λεπτομερής αναφορά στις υφιστάμενες τεχνικές ελέγχου των τριφασικών ασύγχρονων μηχανών και στις εφαρμογές αυτών σε μονά και διπλά κινητήρια συστήματα. Στη συνέχεια πραγματοποιείται σύγκριση δύο εκ των επικρατέστερων μεθόδων ελέγχου διπλών κινητήριων συστημάτων και παρουσιάζονται ενδεχόμενες δυσλειτουργίες αυτών λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν από την προσομοίωση του συστήματος και τα οποία πιστοποιούνται μέσω της πειραματικής διαδικασίας αλλά και της διαθέσιμης βιβλιογραφίας. Στη συνέχεια προτείνεται ένας καινοτόμος υβριδικός έλεγχος που, όπως αποδεικνύεται μέσω προσομοίωσης αλλά και πειραματικών αποτελεσμάτων, αντιμετωπίζει αποτελεσματικά τις προαναφερθείσες δυσλειτουργίες οδηγώντας σε ομαλή λειτουργία του συστήματος. Στο κεφάλαιο 6 προτείνεται, αντί των υφιστάμενων μεθόδων που περιλαμβάνουν την εγκατάσταση επιταχυνσιομέτρων, τη χρήση ακουστικών σημάτων και άλλων παρόμοιων μεθόδων, η χρήση της ηλεκτρικής κινητήριας μηχανής (τριφασικής ασύγχρονης μηχανής στην προκειμένη περίπτωση) ως αισθητήριο μέσο για τη διάγνωση μηχανολογικών σφαλμάτων στις οδοντώσεις γραναζιών. Συγκεκριμένα, εξετάζεται η επίδραση των εν λόγω σφαλμάτων στο φάσμα συχνοτήτων του φασικού ρεύματος και της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ροπής της τριφασικής ασύγχρονης μηχανής, αποδεικνύεται η δυνατότητα διάγνωσης του σφάλματος ανιχνεύοντας την ύπαρξη πολλαπλών αρμονικών στο φάσμα τόσο του φασικού ρεύματος όσο και της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ροπής. Στο κεφάλαιο 7 γίνεται μια εκτίμηση σε ό,τι αφορά τη συμβολή της διδακτορικής διατριβής, το κεφάλαιο 8 περιλαμβάνει μία ανά κεφάλαιο περίληψη της παρούσας διατριβής ενώ το κεφάλαιο 9 περιέχει τη διαθέσιμη βιβλιογραφία που χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην παρούσα εργασία κατά τη σειρά αναφοράς της στο κείμενο. / This thesis deals with the modeling, the control and the diagnosis of mechanical faults in a dual ac drive with common mechanical load. Chapter 1 constitutes an introduction of the reader to the electrical drive systems. Initially, a short historical retrospection of these systems is realized, while afterwards the thematic units that constitute the contributions of the present thesis, which can be summarized as the control of a dual cement kiln drive and the diagnosis of mechanical gear faults using the ac motor as a sensor, are presented. In chapter 2 the specifications and the operational characteristics of the kiln drive system are presented based on the industrial requirements and the existing references. Particularly the torque – speed characteristic load curve of the kiln, the advantages of upgrading the dc drives with ac ones, the parameters which determine the decision of installing a single or a dual transmission system and the need of uninterrupted operation of the kiln drive are underlined. In addition the step by step development of a simulating model of the under study system in the Matlab/Simulink environment is presented in chapter 3. Particularly the equations of motion for the kiln and the transmission system, the dynamic model equations of the asynchronous motor, the power electronics converters and the control strategy based on the Direct Torque Control have been incorporated in the Matlab/Simulink environment through which a theoretical investigation is realized. Moreover, the design and the development of an under scale laboratory simulating system of the kiln drive has been realized and the characteristics of the design specifications of the laboratory system are presented in chapter 4. Using the theoretical model developed in the Matlab/Simulink environment and the laboratory simulating system, a comparison of the existing control methods used for the electric drive systems (speed control and torque control) is being presented (chapter 5), focusing at specific malfunctions which can be caused by the application of these controls at a dual cement kiln drive. Taking into account these malfunctions, a novel hybrid control method is being presented whose operation is based on the application of a parallel-hybrid speed and torque control, simultaneously at both electric motors. In this way an equal load distribution can be achieved, obviating at the same the appearance of mechanical malfunctions. In chapter 6, the fault diagnosis of electromechanical drives is referenced, focusing on the identification of mechanical faults appeared in the pinion/girth gear coupling using the ac motor as a sensor. The proposed diagnostic method is based on the detection of multiples of the defective frequency at both phase current and electromagnetic torque frequency spectrum. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified using experimental results from the laboratory simulating system, operating as a single drive. Finally, chapter 7, 8 and 9 include an estimation of the thesis contribution, a summary and the reference part respectively.

A geração de resíduos sólidos é inerente ao desenvolvimento humano. O concreto armado é um dos materiais mais utilizados pelo homem e tem o cimento Portland como seu principal constituinte, o qual é produzido pela moagem de clínquer e gesso. O clínquer pode ser definido como um mineral artificial, obtido a partir das reações físico-químicas de calcário, argila e corretivos a altas temperaturas, em forno rotativo industrial, mediante a queima de combustíveis fósseis. No início da década de 70 foram realizadas as primeiras experiências de substituição de combustíveis fósseis por resíduos industriais nos Estados Unidos e países europeus, através da técnica denominada co-processamento, resultando na manufatura de um produto ao mesmo tempo em que os resíduos eram eliminados. O co-processamento se baseia na recuperação da energia disponível nos resíduos, substituindo parte daquela fornecida pelos combustíveis tradicionais ou na substituição de matérias-primas por resíduos com características químicas semelhantes àquelas normalmente empregadas na produção do clínquer. No estado de São Paulo as primeiras iniciativas para a utilização de resíduos industriais em fornos de clínquer ocorreram no início da década de 90. A partir de 1997 os órgãos ambientais de alguns estados brasileiros normatizaram procedimentos de licenciamento da atividade que foi, posteriormente, uniformizada por norma em âmbito federal. No ano de 1995 a Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande/SP, Brasil, iniciou os procedimentos visando a substituição parcial dos combustíveis utilizados nos fornos rotativos por uma mistura de resíduos industriais. No período de 1995 a 2002 foram realizadas campanhas de amostragens em chaminés para avaliação das emissões atmosféricas dos dois fornos de produção de clínquer. A análise dos resultados obtidos associada às demais informações disponíveis de monitoramento das características das matérias-primas e combustíveis utilizados, bem como dos produtos finais, clínquer e cimento, não evidenciou alterações significativas nos níveis de emissões atmosféricas, sobretudo de material particulado e óxidos de enxofre, que pudessem ser associadas à utilização dos resíduos. Foram confirmadas as baixas emissões de inorgânicos e evidenciado o papel representado pelos resíduos no aporte dessas substâncias no sistema-forno, concluindo-se que esse aporte pode ser tão ou mais importante pela via da alimentação da farinha, cujos teores estão associados às características das jazidas minerais utilizadas. Foi também confirmada a alta eficiência do sistema-forno na destruição e remoção dos compostos orgânicos perigosos alimentados durante os testes de queima. / The production of industrial residues in inherent to the human development. The cement concrete is one of the most used material, manly the type portland cement, which is constituted by grinding clinker and gypsum together. Clinker can be defined as an artificial mineral obtained by applying physico-chemical reactions, at very high temperatures, to an appropriated mixture of limestone, clay, and some other materials in a rotating industrial kiln wich burns fossil fuels. In the early 1970 decade occurred the first experiences substituting fossil fuels by organic residues in USA and Europe through a technique named co-processing that results the production of certain manufacture while eliminates residues. Co-processing is based in the recovery of thermal energy and/or the mass of some constituents from some residues, with the same chemical characteristics of normal sources of energy, then economizing fuels and mass constituents and making better use of residues, otherwise useless and environmentally polluters. In the state of São Paulo this practice began in early 1990 decade and by 1997 it was started the standardization of the rules for its use in some units of the federation. Later this activity was regulated by nationally approved standard rules. In 1995 the industry Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande (CCRG), a cement plant located in the city of Ribeirão Grande, São Paulo state, Brazil, started procedures searching the partial substitution of the normal fuels by a mixture of industrial residues in its two rotating kilns. The gaseous emissions from the chimneys of these two clinker kilns were studied from 1995 to 2002 about the use of residues as part of the fuel. Analyses of the final results associated with other informations concerning to the quality of raw minerals, fuels and products did not show significant alterations in atmospheric emissions, mainly for particulate material and sulfur oxides, related with the use of residues. The emissions of inorganic continued to be low and not significantly altered by the presence of residues. It was possible to conclude that the alterations in inorganic emissions depend more from the quality of the raw minerals feed in the kilns, which is more difficult to control, than from the presence of residues being burn with the fuel. It was shown a high efficiency in the destruction of dangerous organic compounds feed in the cement kilns, under test conditions.

A madeira é um material de grande versatilidade, que atende a demanda de importantes setores da nossa economia. Além de ser uma matéria-prima natural e renovável, o consumo energético envolvido em sua manufatura é bem menor quando comparado com outros materiais de origem mineral. Porém, características intrínsecas da madeira resultam na sua capacidade de troca higroscópica com o ambiente, que se manifesta durante sua vida útil e causa a movimentação dimensional dos produtos. Visando reduzir esse efeito indesejável, o presente estudo buscou melhorar a estabilidade dimensional da madeira de folhosas, a partir da aplicação de tratamentos térmicos adicionais, em madeiras submetidas à secagem ao ar e convencional. As madeiras selecionadas foram as espécies comercialmente conhecidas como Jatobá e Muiracatiara, das quais foram coletadas 5 tábuas radiais e 5 tábuas tangenciais de cada espécie, tanto secas ao ar e como em estufa, escolhidas do estoque de uma indústria de pisos de madeira maciça. Dessas tábuas foram cortadas amostras para a aplicação dos tratamentos térmicos, que consistiram da exposição da madeira a temperaturas de 60°C, 75°C e 90°C por períodos de 24, 48, 72 e 96 horas. Após os tratamentos as amostras foram expostas a um ambiente de baixa umidade relativa (Condicionamento 1) e, após estabilização, foram expostas a um ambiente de alta umidade relativa (Condicionamento 2). Ao final dos tratamentos térmicos e dos condicionamentos foram medidos os teores de umidade e as dimensões das amostras. Os resultados obtidos permitiram verificar que a umidade de equilíbrio da madeira de Jatobá foi menor do que a da Muiracatiara, comportamento similar ao das amostras tangenciais em relação às radiais e da madeira seca em estufa em relação à madeira seca ao ar; mas que essas diferenças não são importantes na industrialização da madeira. Dentre os tratamentos térmicos, o mais eficiente foi a exposição à temperatura de 90ºC, independente do tempo de exposição. Esse tratamento reduziu a higroscopicidade da madeira e a movimentação dimensional decorrente das variações no teor de umidade, sendo que esse efeito foi mais pronunciado na madeira seca em estufa do que na madeira seca ao ar. A principal conclusão é que o tratamento térmico adicional, utilizando temperatura de 90ºC, apresenta potencial para aplicação industrial visando reduzir a movimentação dimensional da madeira e seus derivados. / Lumber is a material of great versatility, which meets the demand of important sectors of our economy. In addition, lumber is a natural and renewable raw material; consuming less energy in its production when compared with other materials of mineral origin. However, hygroscopicity is an intrinsic characteristic of the wood, which remains active during the life cycle and cause dimensional movement of lumber and its products. To reduce this undesirable effect, the present study aimed to improve the dimensional stability of hardwood lumber through the application of additional heat treatments to conventional and air-dried timber. The selected species were those commercially known as Jatobá and Muiracatiara, of which were collected 5 quarter sawn and 5 flat sawn boards of each species, both air dried and kiln dried, chosen from the stock of a flooring mill. These boards were cut to samples for the application of heat treatment, which consist in lumber exposure to temperatures of 60ºC, 75ºC and 90ºC during periods of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. After heat treatment the samples were exposed to a dry environment (low relative humidity, Condition 1) and, after to reach equilibrium moisture content, exposed to a wet environment (high relative humidity, Condition 2). Samples dimensions and moisture content were measured after the heat treatment and both two conditioning. The obtained results allowed to verify that equilibrium moisture content of Jatobá lumber was smaller than Muiracatiara lumber, similar behavior found for flat sawn samples compared to quarter sawn and for kiln-dried in relation to air dried lumber; but these differences are not important in lumber industrialization processes. Among the heat treatments, the most effective was the exposure at a temperature of 90°C, regardless of time of exposure. This treatment reduced the wood hygroscopicity and its dimensional movement caused by the variation in its moisture content, and this effect was more pronounced in the kiln dried wood than in air dried wood. The main conclusion is that additional heat treatment, using a temperature of 90°C, have potential for industrial application aiming to reduce the dimensional movement of lumber and its products.

Além da secagem convencional, a aplicação de tratamentos térmicos a altas temperaturas é um dos processos mais empregados para potencializar a estabilidade da madeira, porém necessitam de estrutura e equipamentos próprios. Diante disto, a proposta desta pesquisa fundamenta-se no estudo da aplicação de tratamentos estabilizadores para redução da higroscopicidade do material madeira, mediante temperaturas mais brandas (abaixo de 150°C) e que permitam a aplicação prática em equipamentos de secagem utilizados na indústria nacional. O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos dos tratamentos estabilizadores nas propriedades físicas e componentes químicos da madeira para sua viabilização prática. O trabalho consistiu em duas etapas, na primeira: foram utilizadas três espécies de folhosas: Cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum), Tachi preto (Tachigali myrmecophyla) e Itaúba amarela (Mezilaurus itauba), foi realizada a caracterização anatômica das espécies utilizando Microscopia Ótica e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), e análise da composição química e propriedades físicas. As amostras destinadas aos tratamentos estabilizadores, inicialmente, foram secas em estufa convencional e em seguida passaram pelos tratamentos estabilizadores em autoclave a 90°C (24 e 96h) e 120°C (2h e 8h). Em seguida, foram realizados os condicionamentos higroscópicos (adsorção e dessorção) nas umidades relativas de 30, 60 e 90% para avaliação do potencial higroscópico e das variações dimensionais. Na segunda etapa, a partir dos resultados obtidos na primeira etapa, foi possível aplicar o tratamento propriamente dito, o piloto em escala industrial, utilizando uma estufa de secagem convencional (90°C por 24 horas); e em escala laboratorial (90°C por 24 e 96 horas), em uma câmara de climatização simulando um secador convencional. Para o tratamento piloto, foi levado em consideração a disponibilidade de matéria prima da empresa e tendo como foco o trabalho concomitante entre laboratório e aplicação industrial, a espécie utilizada foi o Cumarú (Dipterix sp), uma vez que essa espécie é considerada pela indústria como uma das mais problemáticas e, portanto, uma das espécies prioritárias para receber um tratamento que contribua para reduzir a variação dimensional após secagem. Os principais resultados permitiram observar que os tratamentos estabilizadores na forma em que foram aplicados na presente pesquisa, não causaram alterações na composição química na madeira das espécies e quando realizados em ambiente com alta umidade relativa, não apresentam redução significativa da higroscopicidade e da variação dimensional na maioria dos condicionamentos. Com aplicação do tratamento piloto foi possível observar que com o controle da umidade relativa do ar, tanto no início quanto no final do processo, é possível reduzir o potencial higroscópico da madeira mediante aplicação de tratamentos estabilizadores. / Besides conventional drying, the application of heat treatment at high temperatures is one of the processes employed to improve the stability of wood, however they require its own structure and equipment. Therefore, the purpose of this research is based on the application of the stabilizers treatments studies of wood material hygroscopicity reduction, using low temperatures (below 150°C) and that allows practical application in drying equipment used in the domestic industry. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of stabilizing treatments on the physical properties and chemical components of wood for its practical feasibility. The research was comprised for two steps, the first: a total of three species of hardwoods had been used: Cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum), Tachi preto (Tachigali myrmecophyla) e Itaúba amarela (Mezilaurus itauba). The characterization of this three species was made by anatomical description, using Optical Microscope and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), the chemical composition analysis and the physical properties. Samples of the stabilizing treatment, initially, were dried in a conventional kiln dryer and then the stabilizing treatment was applied in an autoclave at 90°C (24 e 96h) e 120°C (2h e 8h). Next, the hygroscopic conditioning were conducted (adsorption and desorption) in relative humidity (RH) of 30, 60 and 90% for evaluation of hygroscopic potential and dimensional changes. In the second stage, from the results obtained in the first step, it was possible to apply the treatment itself, the industrial scale pilot, using a conventional kiln dryer (90°C for 24 hours); and laboratory scale (90°C for 24 and 96 hours) in a climate chamber simulating a conventional dryer. For the pilot treatment, the availability of raw materials in the company was taken into account and focusing on the concurrent work between laboratory and industrial application, the selected specie was Cumarú (Dipterix sp), considered by the industry as one of the most problematic and, therefore a priority species to receive a treatment that can help to reduce the dimensional change after drying. The main results allowed to observe that the stabilizing treatments in the way that were applied in this study, did not cause changes in the chemical composition and when performed in an environment with high relative humidity, show no significant reduction of hygroscopicity and dimensional variation in most of conditionings. From the implementation of pilot treatment was observed that adopting the control of relative humidity, both in the beginning and the end of the process, is possible to reduce hygroscopic potential of wood by applying stabilizers treatments.

Além da secagem convencional, a aplicação de tratamentos térmicos a altas temperaturas é um dos processos mais empregados para potencializar a estabilidade da madeira, porém necessitam de estrutura e equipamentos próprios. Diante disto, a proposta desta pesquisa fundamenta-se no estudo da aplicação de tratamentos estabilizadores para redução da higroscopicidade do material madeira, mediante temperaturas mais brandas (abaixo de 150°C) e que permitam a aplicação prática em equipamentos de secagem utilizados na indústria nacional. O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos dos tratamentos estabilizadores nas propriedades físicas e componentes químicos da madeira para sua viabilização prática. O trabalho consistiu em duas etapas, na primeira: foram utilizadas três espécies de folhosas: Cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum), Tachi preto (Tachigali myrmecophyla) e Itaúba amarela (Mezilaurus itauba), foi realizada a caracterização anatômica das espécies utilizando Microscopia Ótica e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), e análise da composição química e propriedades físicas. As amostras destinadas aos tratamentos estabilizadores, inicialmente, foram secas em estufa convencional e em seguida passaram pelos tratamentos estabilizadores em autoclave a 90°C (24 e 96h) e 120°C (2h e 8h). Em seguida, foram realizados os condicionamentos higroscópicos (adsorção e dessorção) nas umidades relativas de 30, 60 e 90% para avaliação do potencial higroscópico e das variações dimensionais. Na segunda etapa, a partir dos resultados obtidos na primeira etapa, foi possível aplicar o tratamento propriamente dito, o piloto em escala industrial, utilizando uma estufa de secagem convencional (90°C por 24 horas); e em escala laboratorial (90°C por 24 e 96 horas), em uma câmara de climatização simulando um secador convencional. Para o tratamento piloto, foi levado em consideração a disponibilidade de matéria prima da empresa e tendo como foco o trabalho concomitante entre laboratório e aplicação industrial, a espécie utilizada foi o Cumarú (Dipterix sp), uma vez que essa espécie é considerada pela indústria como uma das mais problemáticas e, portanto, uma das espécies prioritárias para receber um tratamento que contribua para reduzir a variação dimensional após secagem. Os principais resultados permitiram observar que os tratamentos estabilizadores na forma em que foram aplicados na presente pesquisa, não causaram alterações na composição química na madeira das espécies e quando realizados em ambiente com alta umidade relativa, não apresentam redução significativa da higroscopicidade e da variação dimensional na maioria dos condicionamentos. Com aplicação do tratamento piloto foi possível observar que com o controle da umidade relativa do ar, tanto no início quanto no final do processo, é possível reduzir o potencial higroscópico da madeira mediante aplicação de tratamentos estabilizadores. / Besides conventional drying, the application of heat treatment at high temperatures is one of the processes employed to improve the stability of wood, however they require its own structure and equipment. Therefore, the purpose of this research is based on the application of the stabilizers treatments studies of wood material hygroscopicity reduction, using low temperatures (below 150°C) and that allows practical application in drying equipment used in the domestic industry. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of stabilizing treatments on the physical properties and chemical components of wood for its practical feasibility. The research was comprised for two steps, the first: a total of three species of hardwoods had been used: Cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum), Tachi preto (Tachigali myrmecophyla) e Itaúba amarela (Mezilaurus itauba). The characterization of this three species was made by anatomical description, using Optical Microscope and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), the chemical composition analysis and the physical properties. Samples of the stabilizing treatment, initially, were dried in a conventional kiln dryer and then the stabilizing treatment was applied in an autoclave at 90°C (24 e 96h) e 120°C (2h e 8h). Next, the hygroscopic conditioning were conducted (adsorption and desorption) in relative humidity (RH) of 30, 60 and 90% for evaluation of hygroscopic potential and dimensional changes. In the second stage, from the results obtained in the first step, it was possible to apply the treatment itself, the industrial scale pilot, using a conventional kiln dryer (90°C for 24 hours); and laboratory scale (90°C for 24 and 96 hours) in a climate chamber simulating a conventional dryer. For the pilot treatment, the availability of raw materials in the company was taken into account and focusing on the concurrent work between laboratory and industrial application, the selected specie was Cumarú (Dipterix sp), considered by the industry as one of the most problematic and, therefore a priority species to receive a treatment that can help to reduce the dimensional change after drying. The main results allowed to observe that the stabilizing treatments in the way that were applied in this study, did not cause changes in the chemical composition and when performed in an environment with high relative humidity, show no significant reduction of hygroscopicity and dimensional variation in most of conditionings. From the implementation of pilot treatment was observed that adopting the control of relative humidity, both in the beginning and the end of the process, is possible to reduce hygroscopic potential of wood by applying stabilizers treatments.

A madeira é um material de grande versatilidade, que atende a demanda de importantes setores da nossa economia. Além de ser uma matéria-prima natural e renovável, o consumo energético envolvido em sua manufatura é bem menor quando comparado com outros materiais de origem mineral. Porém, características intrínsecas da madeira resultam na sua capacidade de troca higroscópica com o ambiente, que se manifesta durante sua vida útil e causa a movimentação dimensional dos produtos. Visando reduzir esse efeito indesejável, o presente estudo buscou melhorar a estabilidade dimensional da madeira de folhosas, a partir da aplicação de tratamentos térmicos adicionais, em madeiras submetidas à secagem ao ar e convencional. As madeiras selecionadas foram as espécies comercialmente conhecidas como Jatobá e Muiracatiara, das quais foram coletadas 5 tábuas radiais e 5 tábuas tangenciais de cada espécie, tanto secas ao ar e como em estufa, escolhidas do estoque de uma indústria de pisos de madeira maciça. Dessas tábuas foram cortadas amostras para a aplicação dos tratamentos térmicos, que consistiram da exposição da madeira a temperaturas de 60°C, 75°C e 90°C por períodos de 24, 48, 72 e 96 horas. Após os tratamentos as amostras foram expostas a um ambiente de baixa umidade relativa (Condicionamento 1) e, após estabilização, foram expostas a um ambiente de alta umidade relativa (Condicionamento 2). Ao final dos tratamentos térmicos e dos condicionamentos foram medidos os teores de umidade e as dimensões das amostras. Os resultados obtidos permitiram verificar que a umidade de equilíbrio da madeira de Jatobá foi menor do que a da Muiracatiara, comportamento similar ao das amostras tangenciais em relação às radiais e da madeira seca em estufa em relação à madeira seca ao ar; mas que essas diferenças não são importantes na industrialização da madeira. Dentre os tratamentos térmicos, o mais eficiente foi a exposição à temperatura de 90ºC, independente do tempo de exposição. Esse tratamento reduziu a higroscopicidade da madeira e a movimentação dimensional decorrente das variações no teor de umidade, sendo que esse efeito foi mais pronunciado na madeira seca em estufa do que na madeira seca ao ar. A principal conclusão é que o tratamento térmico adicional, utilizando temperatura de 90ºC, apresenta potencial para aplicação industrial visando reduzir a movimentação dimensional da madeira e seus derivados. / Lumber is a material of great versatility, which meets the demand of important sectors of our economy. In addition, lumber is a natural and renewable raw material; consuming less energy in its production when compared with other materials of mineral origin. However, hygroscopicity is an intrinsic characteristic of the wood, which remains active during the life cycle and cause dimensional movement of lumber and its products. To reduce this undesirable effect, the present study aimed to improve the dimensional stability of hardwood lumber through the application of additional heat treatments to conventional and air-dried timber. The selected species were those commercially known as Jatobá and Muiracatiara, of which were collected 5 quarter sawn and 5 flat sawn boards of each species, both air dried and kiln dried, chosen from the stock of a flooring mill. These boards were cut to samples for the application of heat treatment, which consist in lumber exposure to temperatures of 60ºC, 75ºC and 90ºC during periods of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. After heat treatment the samples were exposed to a dry environment (low relative humidity, Condition 1) and, after to reach equilibrium moisture content, exposed to a wet environment (high relative humidity, Condition 2). Samples dimensions and moisture content were measured after the heat treatment and both two conditioning. The obtained results allowed to verify that equilibrium moisture content of Jatobá lumber was smaller than Muiracatiara lumber, similar behavior found for flat sawn samples compared to quarter sawn and for kiln-dried in relation to air dried lumber; but these differences are not important in lumber industrialization processes. Among the heat treatments, the most effective was the exposure at a temperature of 90°C, regardless of time of exposure. This treatment reduced the wood hygroscopicity and its dimensional movement caused by the variation in its moisture content, and this effect was more pronounced in the kiln dried wood than in air dried wood. The main conclusion is that additional heat treatment, using a temperature of 90°C, have potential for industrial application aiming to reduce the dimensional movement of lumber and its products.