In this master thesis, I have studied conflicts that have arisen because of a development project, in a wetland in the Lake Victoria region in Kenya. The aim of the project is to improve the standards of living for the local community by increased food production and employment, but it has developed into a conflict because of, among other things, competition over natural resources. The objective of this study is to analyse these conflicts and identify the causes behind them. A further aim is to analyse if the communication has been sufficient in Yala Swamp, from the stakeholders’ point of view, through out the implementation of the project. The stakeholders that were identified in the conflict are the local community that have been affected by the project, the county councils where the project is located, and the company Dominion, which is the exploiter. Conflict theory is the analytical tool used to identify causes to the conflict. Primary data was collected through qualitative research interviews and secondary data are various reports. The result of the conflict analysis shows that there is a conflict between the local community on one side, and Dominion and the county councils on the other side. The conflict is caused by incompatible goals. The goals that are incompatible, which depend on contested resources, have to the largest extent to do with land access and to some extent with employment. The reason for contested resources has its origin in that the local community feel they have been deprived the land they used to farm on and have not gained what they were promised. They also live in absolute poverty and therefore whish to have more land than they have now. Conflicts over land leads to environmental degradation when people are squeezed into limited areas and put more pressure on land. This issue needs immediate attention to not lead to violent conflicts and further environmental degradation. Foremost the local community is dissatisfied with how the communication between the stakeholders worked before the implementation of the development project and after. A committee was going to be set, but today it does not seem to work adequately from the community members’ point of view. A committee would, however, probably improve the communication and resolve some conflicts. This would reduce the conflict potential and lead to a more sustainable development for all stakeholders.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Bionomics of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) is a complex phenomenon that involves understanding the ecology of arthropod borne pathogens and vertebrate hosts potentially involved in their transmission cycles. Investigations into the bionomics of viral and bacterial VBPs circulating in Baringo and Homa Bay Counties of Kenya were carried out. Specifically, vertebrate hosts represented in mosquito bloodmeals, presence of arboviruses in blood fed mosquitoes and patients presenting with acute undiagnosed febrile illnesses in rural health facilities, and tick borne pathogens (TBPs) diversity in ticks of animals were identified. Mosquitoes were trapped by BG sentinel and CDC light traps, while ticks were sampled directly from domestic animals and tortoises close to human habitation along the shores and adjacent islands of Lakes Victoria and Baringo in Kenya. Blood and sera were also sampled from patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses visiting four rural health facilities in Homa Bay County. Mosquitoes and ticks were sorted and identified to species using standard morphological taxonomic keys. All the biological samples (blood-fed mosquitoes, ticks and blood/sera) were processed using molecular and culture procedures for detection of VBPs (arboviruses, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Rickettsia and protozoa). Among 445 blood-fed Aedeomyia, Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia, and Mimomyia mosquitoes, 33 bloodmeal hosts were identified including humans, eight domestic animal species, six peridomestic animal species and 18 wildlife species. Further detection of Sindbis and Bunyamwera viruses was done on blood-fed mosquito homogenates by Vero cell culture and RTPCR in Culex, Aedeomyia, Anopheles and Mansonia mosquitoes from Baringo that had fed on humans and livestock. In TBPs assay, 585 tick pools were analysed consisting of 4,126 ticks collected in both study areas. More ticks were sampled in Baringo (80.5%), compared to Homa Bay (19.5%). In Baringo, agents of ehrlichiosis were detected from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks including Ehrlichia ruminantium (12.3%), Ehrichia canis (10.5%) and Paracoccus sp. (4.4%). Agents of anaplasmosis included Anaplasma ovis (7.2%), Anaplasma platys (4.4%) and Anaplasma bovis (4.0%), all from Hyalomma, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks, as well as agents of rickettsiosis, including Rickettsia africae, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia rhipicephali, Rickettsia montanensis and a Rickettsia sp. that was not conclusively characterized. Babesia caballi, Theileria sp. and Hepatozoon fitzsimonsi were also detected from both Rhipicephalus ticks and Amblyomma ticks. In Homa Bay, Ehrichia ruminantium (17.5%) and Ehrichia canis (9.3%) were isolated from Amblyomma latum and Rhipicephalus pulchellus, as well as Anaplasma platys (14.4%) and Anaplasma ovis (14.4%) from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus species. In determination of the occurrence of arboviruses among patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses, acute Bunyamwera 3 (0.9%) and Sindbis 2 (0.6%) infections were detected by RT-PCR and cell culture and Sindbis seroprevalence was determined by plaque assay. Though a significant proportion of these patients tested positive for low Plasmodium parasitemia, none were co-infected with Plasmodium parasites and arboviruses. This study highlights the presence and relative importance of zoonotic VBPs in both study areas.

Lake Victoria, the second largest freshwater body in the world is affected by rise in eutrophication. This is mainly due to anthropogenic activities happening in the catchment. In this study, distribution of six elements (Cu, Zn, N, C, P, and Si) in sediments were studied from the five sites in Kenya namely Kisumu (DK2, OK2), Busia (KK2), Siaya (SPK2 and Kapsabet (KP1A). The elemental flux values were correlated with historical changes in the catchment to see if it can influence the eutrophication in Lake Victoria. Flux calculated for these elements show a strong correlation with anthropogenic activities associated with land-use changes ushered after building of the railroads, agricultural practices and urban development in the catchment. The spatial and temporal changes in distribution of these elements have a distinct signature on the metal flux. The metal flux are correlated with change in trophic conditions in the lake. There is also a distinct difference in metal flux into the lake derived from urban versus rural areas.

<p>In the Kisumu District, Kenya, unreliable rainfall pattern has been identified as one of the main causes for poverty in rural areas. The negative effects of such unreliable patterns could be mitigated through improved water resource management and planning. However, estimates of current (and future) water availability will likely differ depending on whether managers draw upon data gathered at a local-scale or regional-scale. This is particularly important in developing regions where, due to lack of data availability, managers are often limited in their choice of data resolution. This study investigates the potential effect of spatial resolution of data on water management and planning by comparing hydro-climatic trends in local-scale data with trends in regional-scale data. The influence of adopting local-scale versus regional-scale data is further demonstrated by estimate the storage requirements of proposed irrigation ponds for farmers in the Orongo village of the Kisumu District located in Kenya, Africa. Results indicate a low correlation between local and regional hydro-climatic trends. Data spatial scale directly influences water resources management leading to a 300% difference in estimated storage requirement for the average farmer.</p>

<p>Attention to participatory watershed management is increasing across the developing world<em> </em>as<em> </em>soil erosion continues to degrade agricultural land; reservoirs and irrigation infrastructure are clogged with sediment. The realization of the importance of watersheds is crucial for sustainable utilization especially in developing countries where rural livelihoods and economies are highly dependant on the exploitation of natural resources. The Lake Victoria basin is characterized by high population pressures, low productive subsistence agriculture, poor farming methods, loss of soil fertility and deforestation due to demand of fuel wood and charcoal, timber and building materials that are posing serious threat to watersheds. High population density in the basin also means new needs emerge too fast to which rural societies cannot respond in time leading to more area expansion for agricultural land. In spite of positive efforts under the Lake Victoria Basin Commission, there remains a huge gap between policy and institutional framework development at the top level and the actual implementation of actions on the ground to prevent land degradation, soil erosion and decrease sediment load. The study focused on Kagera and Nyando catchments of Lake Victoria Basin and aiming to establish if there exist and the extent to which participatory watershed management has been implemented on the ground to decrease land degradation and sediment load. It therefore provides an insight into watershed management in the Kagera and Nyando catchments by illustrating the link between policy formulation and actual implementation and enforcement.</p>

In the Kisumu District, Kenya, unreliable rainfall pattern has been identified as one of the main causes for poverty in rural areas. The negative effects of such unreliable patterns could be mitigated through improved water resource management and planning. However, estimates of current (and future) water availability will likely differ depending on whether managers draw upon data gathered at a local-scale or regional-scale. This is particularly important in developing regions where, due to lack of data availability, managers are often limited in their choice of data resolution. This study investigates the potential effect of spatial resolution of data on water management and planning by comparing hydro-climatic trends in local-scale data with trends in regional-scale data. The influence of adopting local-scale versus regional-scale data is further demonstrated by estimate the storage requirements of proposed irrigation ponds for farmers in the Orongo village of the Kisumu District located in Kenya, Africa. Results indicate a low correlation between local and regional hydro-climatic trends. Data spatial scale directly influences water resources management leading to a 300% difference in estimated storage requirement for the average farmer.

Attention to participatory watershed management is increasing across the developing world as soil erosion continues to degrade agricultural land; reservoirs and irrigation infrastructure are clogged with sediment. The realization of the importance of watersheds is crucial for sustainable utilization especially in developing countries where rural livelihoods and economies are highly dependant on the exploitation of natural resources. The Lake Victoria basin is characterized by high population pressures, low productive subsistence agriculture, poor farming methods, loss of soil fertility and deforestation due to demand of fuel wood and charcoal, timber and building materials that are posing serious threat to watersheds. High population density in the basin also means new needs emerge too fast to which rural societies cannot respond in time leading to more area expansion for agricultural land. In spite of positive efforts under the Lake Victoria Basin Commission, there remains a huge gap between policy and institutional framework development at the top level and the actual implementation of actions on the ground to prevent land degradation, soil erosion and decrease sediment load. The study focused on Kagera and Nyando catchments of Lake Victoria Basin and aiming to establish if there exist and the extent to which participatory watershed management has been implemented on the ground to decrease land degradation and sediment load. It therefore provides an insight into watershed management in the Kagera and Nyando catchments by illustrating the link between policy formulation and actual implementation and enforcement.

This project is a combination of mechanical engineering and sustainable development in developing countries. The goal has been to build a windmill driven water pump and to design a small-scale irrigation system for SCC-Vi Agroforestry’s demonstration farm in Musoma, Mara region, Tanzania. The purpose was to enable SCC-Vi Agroforestry to demonstrate and spread knowledge about these techniques to farmers in the region. In 2007, two students from Halmstad University conducted a field study in the Mara region and found that many farmers lack clean and running water. Back in Sweden they constructed a prototype of a windmill that employs wind energy to pump water using a semi-rotary pump. The intention is that local farmers should be able to build their own windmill, and thus have running water in their household. However, the windmill has never been built in Tanzania. The windmill construction in this report is based on the prototype, but the original drawings were changed to fit the specific situation in Tanzania better. Important throughout the project has been to minimise cost and to only use material that local farmers can get hold of. Building and assembling of the windmill were then performed by the authors in co-operation with local workers. The windmill drives a pump that pumps water from a well to a tank for further use in irrigation. Calculations have been made on the energy available in the wind and an energy analysis was then performed to see what wind speed is required for the system to work. If wind speed is low, the windmill can be adjusted by placing the connecting rod closer to the rotation centre where it requires less work to function. As a result of that, the volume of water per stroke will decrease and it will take longer time to fill the tank. This project was carried out during the rainy season when there is less wind; therefore the windmill has not been tested during optimal wind speed conditions. The tests that have been performed during the circumstances at the time showed that the performance of the windmill is consistent with the theoretical calculations. A proposed design for a simple drip irrigation system has been developed based on the conditions at the project area. It is constructed of plastic pipes with holes that emit water. Covers are in place to prevent soil from clogging the holes. Building the irrigation system was not part of this project.

<p>This project is a combination of mechanical engineering and sustainable development in developing countries. The goal has been to build a windmill driven water pump and to design a small-scale irrigation system for SCC-Vi Agroforestry’s demonstration farm in Musoma, Mara region, Tanzania. The purpose was to enable SCC-Vi Agroforestry to demonstrate and spread knowledge about these techniques to farmers in the region.</p><p>In 2007, two students from Halmstad University conducted a field study in the Mara region and found that many farmers lack clean and running water. Back in Sweden they constructed a prototype of a windmill that employs wind energy to pump water using a semi-rotary pump. The intention is that local farmers should be able to build their own windmill, and thus have running water in their household. However, the windmill has never been built in Tanzania.</p><p>The windmill construction in this report is based on the prototype, but the original drawings were changed to fit the specific situation in Tanzania better. Important throughout the project has been to minimise cost and to only use material that local farmers can get hold of. Building and assembling of the windmill were then performed by the authors in co-operation with local workers. The windmill drives a pump that pumps water from a well to a tank for further use in irrigation.</p><p>Calculations have been made on the energy available in the wind and an energy analysis was then performed to see what wind speed is required for the system to work. If wind speed is low, the windmill can be adjusted by placing the connecting rod closer to the rotation centre where it requires less work to function. As a result of that, the volume of water per stroke will decrease and it will take longer time to fill the tank. This project was carried out during the rainy season when there is less wind; therefore the windmill has not been tested during optimal wind speed conditions. The tests that have been performed during the circumstances at the time showed that the performance of the windmill is consistent with the theoretical calculations.</p><p>A proposed design for a simple drip irrigation system has been developed based on the conditions at the project area. It is constructed of plastic pipes with holes that emit water. Covers are in place to prevent soil from clogging the holes. Building the irrigation system was not part of this project.</p>

Although Lake Victoria is threatened by pollution there is a lack of knowledge about pharmaceuticals contaminants drained into the lake from large cities bordering the lake. Hence, the purpose of this project was to develop, validate and apply a method for analysis of pharmaceutical compounds accumulating in the Lake Victoria sediments. A simple quantitative method for 11 pharmaceuticals combining accelerated solvent extraction, solid phase extraction, trimethylsilylation derivatization, and gas chromatography mass spectrometry was developed, partly validated, and applied to 18 surface sediments and a sediment core dated using the 210Pb method. The results showed the presence of the pharmaceuticals estriol, gemfibrozil, metoprolol, ketoprofen, naproxen, 17α-ethinylestradiol and estrone concentrated around the regions Napoleon Gulf and Thurston Bay with accumulation rates decreasing towards the top of the sediment core. Nonetheless, a randomness in the distribution of these compounds behooves a systematic assessment investigating not only the provenance of these compounds but also further investigations to errors meaning that this study should be treated as a preliminary investigation.