A ‘flexibilização do perímetro urbano’ é praticada nos municípios, por intermédio do poder público municipal, ao expandirem significativamente suas ‘zonas urbanas’ através de sucessivas ampliações do perímetro urbano. Essa prática, que está em conformidade com o conjunto da legislação vigente, ocorre segundo interesses políticos e econômicos, possivelmente sob demanda do mercado imobiliário e fundiário. O dimensionamento exagerado da zona urbana viabiliza a ocupação de áreas periféricas, distantes de áreas consolidadas, estimulando o processo de expansão urbana dispersa, cujos efeitos negativos repercutem sobre aspectos sociais, econômicos e ambientais dos municípios. A presente pesquisa desenvolve um estudo de caso em Lajeado / RS, no período entre 1984 e 2016, com o objetivo de investigar as ‘origens’ da flexibilização do perímetro urbano e, posteriormente, examinar suas ‘repercussões’ sobre a expansão urbana do município. O estudo das ‘origens’ investiga fatores associados à flexibilização do perímetro no município, considerando o papel da legislação e dos instrumentos de planejamento e analisando a evolução do crescimento urbano do município. O estudo das ‘repercussões’ investiga em que medida a flexibilização influenciou a expansão urbana de Lajeado, examinando de maneira associada, as ampliações ocorridas no perímetro urbano e a evolução da ‘mancha urbana’ (áreas construídas). A metodologia da pesquisa é estruturada por análises multi-temporais de indicadores demográficos, socioeconômicos e espaciais, implementadas com auxílio de técnicas e ferramentas SIG. A metodologia de análise da expansão urbana envolve procedimentos de classificação de imagens de sensoriamento remoto, utilizados na produção de mapas temáticos de cobertura do solo e de ‘áreas construídas’, posteriormente examinados através de métodos de análises ‘pós-classificação’ e ‘métricas da paisagem’. Os resultados obtidos para Lajeado permitiram demonstrar o rápido crescimento urbano do município no período analisado e, evidenciam que as ampliações do perímetro urbano tiveram influências significativas sobre o processo de expansão urbana, que se tornou mais intenso e apresentou características de dispersão espacial das ‘áreas construídas’. / The 'urban growth boundary flexibilization’ is practiced in the municipalities, by the means of the local public administration, to expand significantly its 'urban zone' through successive expansions of the urban growth boundary. This practice, which is in accordance with the existing legislation, occurs in according to political and economic interests, possibly under real estate and land market demands. The exaggerated urban zone sizing enables the occupation of peripheral areas, far from consolidated areas, stimulating the process of dispersed urban expansion, whose negative effects have an impact on social, economic and environmental aspects of the municipalities. This research develops a case study in Lajeado/RS, in the period between 1984 and 2016, with the objective of investigating the 'origins' of the urban growth boundary flexibilization and then, examine their 'repercussions' on the urban expansion. The study of 'origins' investigates factors associated with the boundary flexibilization in the municipality, considering the role of legislation and planning instruments, and analyzing the evolution of the urban growth. The study of ' repercussions ' investigates to what extent the flexibilization influenced the urban expansion of Lajeado, examining the enlargements that occurred in the urban zone, in association with the evolution of the ‘urban footprint’ (built-up areas). The research methodology is based on multi-temporal analysis of demographic, socioeconomic and spatial indicators, implemented with the support of GIS tools and techniques. The methodology of analysis of the urban expansion involves procedures of remote sensing image classification, used for production of thematic maps of land cover and built-up areas, that are afterward examined with methods of 'posclassification' and 'landscape metrics’ analysis. The results obtained for Lajeado allowed to demonstrate rapid urban growth of the municipality in the analysis period, and showed that the enlargement of the urban growth boundary had significant influences on the process of urban expansion, which became more intense and presented characteristics of spatial dispersion of the built-up areas.

Processos ecológicos e antrópicos interagem e produzem padrões estruturais de manchas de vegetação, os quais, por sua vez, atuam sobre os processos ecológicos devido à influência da estrutura e do contexto da paisagem sobre estes processos. A região do Planalto das Araucárias se caracteriza por uma paisagem em mosaico, onde manchas florestais se misturam à matriz campestre, como resultado de um processo natural de expansão florestal. É provável que este processo não ocorra uniformemente na paisagem, dadas as características de relevo e a proximidade de áreas fontes (floresta contínua). Os padrões estruturais de manchas florestais estão baseados no processo natural de formação da paisagem (manchas) e na alteração desses por antropização (fragmentos). Este estudo inicialmente objetivou identificar e diferenciar tipos de manchas florestais através de características estruturais e de contexto na paisagem. Posteriormente, foi avaliada a hipótese de que a ocorrência das manchas florestais seja uma resposta aos padrões de umidade do solo, mediados pela declividade do terreno, orientação solar sul e proximidade de talvegues, através de um modelo espacial de probabilidade de ocorrência de manchas para a região de estudo. Para tanto, comparamos o mapa de uso e cobertura do solo (ano base 2002) com o mapa de vegetação pretérita buscando diferenciar: floresta contínua, manchas florestais (MF), fragmentos de manchas (FRAG-MF) e fragmentos de floresta contínua (FRAG-FC). Os tipos de manchas foram caracterizados quanto à estrutura (forma e área) e contexto (contraste de borda, distância de floresta contínua, de vias e de centros urbanos) e as diferenças entre os tipos foram testadas por meio de análises de variância multivariada. Para a análise de probabilidade de ocorrência de MF em relação às características topográficas e à distância de área fonte, utilizamos uma análise de regressão logística múltipla, sendo os coeficientes e a performance do modelo testados por distintos métodos. Os resultados indicaram que os três tipos de manchas diferem significativamente entre si, sendo os fragmentos maiores e com formas mais complexas que as manchas. As MF se caracterizam pela forma regular, com tendência arredondada. Os FRAG-FC se encontram mais próximos de floresta contínua, vias e centros urbanos que os demais tipos. Ou seja, as características de estrutura e contexto das manchas nos permitiram diferenciar as MF dos fragmentos florestais. Com relação ao modelo de distribuição das MF, foi observado que a maior probabilidade de ocorrência de MF está associada aos locais de declividade suave, distantes de talvegues, distantes da floresta contínua e em terrenos orientados para o sul e o oeste. As condições locais de umidade que parecem influenciar a presença de MF são as encostas orientadas para o sul e oeste. Através do modelo, verificou-se uma concordância de 64% entre os locais preditos pelo modelo e os locais de ocorrência observada. A hipótese de que o processo de expansão florestal não ocorre uniformemente na paisagem se sustenta, uma vez que existem características de relevo que tornam certos locais mais favoráveis à ocorrência de manchas florestais do que outros. / Ecological and anthropogenic processes interact and produce structural vegetation patterns that can in turn act upon ecological processes, since they are influenced by landscape structure and context. The southern Brazilian Plateau (Planalto das Araucárias) is a mosaic landscape where forest patches occur in a grassland matrix as a result natural forest expansion. This process probably does not take place uniformly at the landscape, due to the heterogeneous topography and proximity of source areas (continuous forest). The landscape patterns are based on natural processes that shape the landscape (natural forest patches) and on their modification by anthropogenic activities (forest fragments). This study, had two main objectives. The first objective was to identify and distinguish types of forest patches using metrics of patch structure and context in the landscape. The second one was to evaluate the hypothesis that forest patch occurrence is a response to landscape humidity patterns mediated by terrain slope, solar orientation and talweg proximity. This was done by spatially modeling the probability of forest patch presence in the study area. We compared a 2002 land cover map with a past, pre-european settlement, land use map to identify: continuous forest, natural forest patches (MF), fragments of forest patches (FRAG-MF) and fragments of continous forest (FRAG-FC). Each of these patch types was described in terms of structure (shape and area) and context (edge contrast, distance from continous forest, distance from roads, and distance from urban areas), and the diferences among them were tested by a MANOVA. To model the probability of forest patch occurrence as a function of topographic features and distance from source areas, we used a multiple logistic regression. The results indicated that the all three types of forest patches differed significantly. Fragments tend to be larger and more complex in shape than natural patches, which tend to present a more regular, roundish shape. Fragments of continuous forest are closer to the continuous forests, to roads and urban areas, than are other patch types (FRAG-MF and MF), i.e., natural forest patches could be distinguished from fragmented patches on the basis of their structure and landscape context. The model of MF presence probability showed that higher probabilities are associated to low declivity, south and westward orientated sites, distant from talwegs and from continuous forests. The local moisture conditions that influenced the occurrence of MF are the south and westward aspects. There was a 64% concordance between presence sites predicted by the model and actual observed presence sites. The results provided evidence for the hypothesis that forest expansion is not uniform across the landscape, since topographic features make some sites more favorable than others to the establishment of forest patches.

The main goal of this study was to map and measure forest change in the southwestern part of Madagascar near the city of Toliara in the period 1990-2010. Recent studies show that forest change in Madagascar on a regional scale does not only deal with forest loss, but also with forest growth However, it is unclear how the study area is dealing with these patterns. In order to select the right classification method, pixel-based classification was compared with object-based classification. The results of this study shows that the object-based classification method was the most suitable method for this landscape. However, the pixel-based approaches also resulted in accurate results. Furthermore, the study shows that in the period 1990–2010, 42% of the forest cover disappeared and was converted into bare soil and savannahs. Next to the change in forest, stable forest regions were fragmented. This has negative effects on the amount of suitable habitats for Malagasy fauna. Finally, the scaling structure in landscape patches was investigated. The study shows that the patch size distribution has long-tail properties and that these properties do not change in periods of deforestation.

abstract: Humans have modified land systems for centuries in pursuit of a wide range of social and ecological benefits. Recent decades have seen an increase in the magnitude and scale of land system modification (e.g., the Anthropocene) but also a growing recognition and interest in generating land systems that balance environmental and human well-being. This dissertation focused on three case studies operating at distinctive spatial scales in which broad socio-economic or political-institutional drivers affected land systems, with consequences for the environmental conditions of that system. Employing a land system architecture (LSA) framework and using landscape metrics to quantify landscape composition and configuration from satellite imagery, each case linked these drivers to changes in LSA and environmental outcomes. The first paper of this dissertation found that divergent design intentions lead to unique trajectories for LSA, the urban heat island effect, and bird community at two urban riparian sites in the Phoenix metropolitan area. The second paper examined institutional shifts that occurred during Cuba’s “special period in time of peace” and found that the resulting land tenure changes both modified and maintained the LSA of the country, changing cropland but preserving forest land. The third paper found that globalized forces may be contributing to the homogenizing urban form of large, populous cities in China, India, and the United States—especially for the ten largest cities in each country—with implications for surface urban heat island intensity. Expanding knowledge on social drivers of land system and environmental change provides insights on designing landscapes that optimize for a range of social and ecological trade-offs. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geography 2020

Urbanisation has had a profound impact in sub-Saharan Africa and can be attributed to the complex human-environment interaction. Knowledge on long-term urbanisation processes in sub-Saharan Africa is lacking. Besides, understanding the urbanisation process in sub-Saharan Africa necessitates to go beyond the global scale to the local scale to unravel the idiosyncrasies in the growth of each city. The perennial lack of data (or data meeting required specifications) is a bottleneck to such studies. Very often, the nature of the available data might present challenges to existing classification algorithms. Moreover, availability of adequate and well-curated reference datasets presents a bottleneck to the generation of accurate land-cover maps. The main aim of this research was to conduct a long-term analysis of urbanisation patterns in Central Africa by developing methodologies based on deep learning, a class of Artificial Intelligence. To this end, we address the main research question: “How can we understand long-term urbanisation patterns by applying deep learning on digital aerial images in Central Africa?” We used case-studies from three cities in Central Africa namely Goma and Bukavu in The Democratic Republic of Congo and Bujumbura in Burundi, to aid in understanding the urbanisation process in sub-Saharan Africa. We generate baseline data from an archive of historical panchromatic orthomosaics that allow for the capturing of the urbanisation before the onset of rapid urbanisation that was characteristic of Countries in sub-Saharan Africa after gaining independence from colonialism.The main contribution of this thesis is the 60-year long-term analysis of urbanisation patterns for three cities in Central Africa using a unique dataset of historical orthomosaics. The growth patterns and driving forces are analysed using spatial and qualitative data. The results show that social triggers such as wars drive urban expansion. On the contrary, biophysical drivers such as geohazards did not limit urban growth only slowing down settlements for a short time span of the analysis. As urbanisation levels increased, constraining effects of natural environment such as relief on urban expansion weakened. In addition, we make some methodological developments based on deep learning to generate land-cover from historical panchromatic orthomosaics (i.e. 1m spatial resolution) and sub-metric RGB aerial images (i.e. 0.175m). Results show that deep learning methods generally have high accuracy metrics, compared to standard machine learning baselines, but at the cost of high demand for a large and accurate, labelled dataset and computational resources. In addition, accurate and sufficient labelled data are still needed to guarantee accurate land-cover maps from deep learning algorithms and novel strategies need to be pursued in approaches investigating insufficient reference data. / L’urbanisation a eu un impact profond sur l’Afrique subsaharienne et peut être attribuée à l’interaction complexe entre l’homme et l’environnement. Les connaissances sur les processus d’urbanisation sur des temps longs font défaut. En outre, pour comprendre le processus d'urbanisation en Afrique subsaharienne, il faut aller au-delà de l'échelle mondiale et s'intéresser à l'échelle locale pour comprendre les particularités de la croissance de chaque ville. L'éternel manque de données (ou de données répondant aux spécifications requises) constitue des limitations de telles études. Très souvent, la nature des données disponibles peut présenter des défis pour les algorithmes de classification existants. De plus, la disponibilité d'ensembles de données de référence adéquats et fiables constitue un goulot d'étranglement pour la création de cartes précises de l'occupation des sols.L'objectif principal de cette recherche était de mener une analyse sur des temps longs des différentes modes d'urbanisation en Afrique centrale en développant des méthodologies basées sur le deep learning, une forme d'intelligence artificielle. A cette fin, nous répondons à la question de recherche suivante :"Comment pouvons-nous comprendre les modes d'urbanisation sur des temps longs en appliquant des approches de deep learning sur des images aériennes numériques en Afrique centrale ?". Nous avons étudié trois villes d'Afrique centrale, à savoir Goma et Bukavu en République démocratique du Congo et Bujumbura au Burundi, de manière à comprendre le processus d'urbanisation en Afrique subsaharienne. Nous pouvons générer des données de base à partir de mosaïques d'orthophotographies aériennes panchromatiques historiques qui permettent de saisir l'urbanisation avant le début de l'urbanisation rapide ayant caractérisé les pays d'Afrique subsaharienne depuis leur indépendance.La principale contribution de cette thèse est l'analyse, sur 60 ans, des modes d'urbanisation pour trois villes d'Afrique centrale en utilisant un ensemble unique d'orthomosaïques historiques. Les modes et les facteurs de croissance y sont analysés en utilisant des données spatiales et qualitatives. Les résultats montrent que les déclencheurs sociaux tels que les guerres étaient positivement corrélé à l'expansion urbaine. Au contraire, les facteurs biophysiques tels que les risques associés aux catastrophes naturelles n'ont pas empêché la croissance urbaine mais ont seulement ralenti les nouvelles implantations pendant une courte période de l'analyse. Par ailleurs, à mesure que les niveaux d'urbanisation augmentent, les effets contraignants de l'environnement naturel tels que le relief sur l'expansion urbaine s'affaiblissent.De plus, certaines avancées méthodologiques ont été accomplies en explorant et en développant une méthodologie basée sur le deep learning pour générer une carte de la couverture du sol à partir d’orthomosaïques panchromatiques historiques (1m) et d'images aériennes RVB sub-métriques (0.175m). Les résultats montrent que les méthodes de deep learning présentent généralement des indicateurs de précision élevés par rapport aux méthodes standard basée sur machine learning, mais au prix d'une grande demande en matière de données étiquetées et de ressources informatiques. En outre, des données étiquetées précises et en quantité suffisante sont toujours nécessaires pour garantir l'exactitude des cartes de l’occupation du sol établies par les algorithmes de deep learning, et de nouvelles stratégies doivent être mises en œuvre dans le cas de travaux ne disposant que de données de référence insuffisantes / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In Sweden, the garden lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus) has a negative effect on the native flora and fauna as it is a highly competitive plant, with high dispersal and growth rates and nitrogen-fixing ability. Landscape metrics are important tools to analyse and understand landscape structure, and could also support the planning of control measures for the invasive lupine. The aim of this study was to use a modelling analysis to evaluate fifty study areas with varying lupine density, ranging from single or sparse to dense or dominant. Several landscape metrics were used to quantify the frequency of lupine presence, and to try to quantify the threat for the modelled species-rich road verges. The study aim was to assess which landscape metrics could predict the weighted mean area of lupine. The research questions in this study were “is there a correlation between different landscape metrics and the weighted mean area of lupine stands?” and “how well can different landscape metrics quantify the threat for road verge communities , in terms of the amount of lupines in the landscape?”. The study area is located in the Heby-region, Uppland (Sweden). Bivariate linear regression was used to test if the mean length, Proximity (Px), distance to nearest neighbour or the number of lupine stands had any significant relation to the weighted mean area. The results showed a significant relationship between the weighted mean area and the mean length of the lupine stands (R²=0.366) and between the weighted mean area and the Px (R²=0.117). This analysis shows that, when data of lupine density are not available, mean stand length and Px might be suitable alternatives. Using this method could assist the work of prioritizing which invaded areas to manage. The method might also be cost-and time-efficient when data of lupine density is unavailable. / I Sverige har trädgårdslupinen (Lupinus polyphyllus) en negativ effekt på den inhemska floran och faunan då det är en mycket konkurrenskraftig växt, med hög spridnings- och tillväxthastighet och kvävebindande förmåga. Landskapsmått är viktiga verktyg för att analysera och förstå landskapets struktur, och skulle också kunna stödja planeringen av bekämpningsåtgärder av den invasiva lupinen. Syftet med studien var att använda en modelleringsanalys för att utvärdera femtio studieområden med varierande lupintäthet, från enstaka eller glesa till täta eller dominerande. Flera landskapsmått användes för att kvantifiera frekvensen av lupinförekomst och för att försöka kvantifiera hotet för de modellerade artrika vägkanterna. Studiens syfte var att bedöma vilka landskapsmått som kunde förutsäga den viktade medelarean för lupinbestånden. Forskningsfrågorna i denna studie var "finns det ett samband mellan olika landskapsmått och den viktade medelarean för lupinbestånd?" och "hur väl kan olika landskapsmått kvantifiera hotet för artrika vägkanter, i fråga om mängden lupiner i landskapet?". Studieområdet är beläget i Heby-regionen, Uppland (Sverige). Bivariat linjär regression användes för att testa om medellängden, Proximity (Px), avståndet till närmsta lupinbestånd eller antalet lupinbestånd hade ett signifikant samband till lupinbeståndens viktade medelarea. Resultaten visade ett signifikant samband mellan den viktade medelarean och medellängden av lupinbestånden (R²=0,366) och mellan den viktade medelarean och Px (R²=0,117). Analysen visar att, när data om lupinbeståndens täthet inte finns tillgängliga, kan lupinbeståndens medellängd och Px vara lämpliga alternativ. Att använda denna metod skulle kunna underlätta arbetet med att prioritera vilka invaderade områden som ska förvaltas. Metoden kan också vara kostnads- och tidseffektiv när data om lupintäthet inte finns tillgänglig.

One of the major consequences of urbanization is the transformation of land surfaces from rural/natural environments to built-up land that supports diverse forms of human activity. These transformations impact the local geology, climate, hydrology, flora and fauna and human-life supporting ecosystem services in the region. Mapping and analysis of land use/land cover change in urban regions and tracking their environmental impact is therefore of vital importance for evaluating policy options for future growth and promoting sustainable urban development. The overall objective of this research is to investigate the extent of urban growth and/or sprawl and its potential environmental impact in the regions surrounding a few selected major cities in North America, Europe and Asia using landscape metrics and other environmental indicators to assess the landscape changes. The urban regions examined are the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) in Canada, Stockholm region and County in Sweden and Shanghai in China. The analyses are based on classificatons of optical satellite imagery (Landsat TM/ETM+ or SPOT 1/5) between 1985 and 2010. Maximum likelihood classification (MLC) under urban/rural masks, objectbased image analysis (OBIA) with rule-based classification and support vector machines (SVM) classification methods were used with grey level cooccurrence matrix (GLCM) texture features as input to help obtain higher accuracies. Based on the classification results, landscape metrics, selected environmental indicators and indices, and ecosystem service valuation were calculated and used to estimate environmental impact of urban growth. The results show that urban areas in the GTA grew by nearly 40% between 1985 and 2005. Results from the landscape metrics and urban compactness indicators show that low-density built-up areas increased significantly in the GTA between 1985 and 2005, mainly at the expense of agricultural areas. The majority of environmentally significant areas were increasingly surrounded by urban areas between 1985 and 2005, furthering their isolation from other natural areas. Urban areas in the Stockholm region increased by 10% between 1986 and 2006. The landscape metrics indicated that natural areas became more isolated or shrank whereas new small urban patches came into being. The most noticeable changes in terms of environmental impact and urban expansion were in the east and north of the study area. Large forested areas in the northeast dropped the most in terms of environmental impact ranking, while the most improved analysis units were close to the central Stockholm area. The study comparing Shanghai and Stockholm County revealed that urban areas increased ten times as much in Shanghai as they did in Stockholm, at 120% and 12% respectively. The landscape metrics results show that fragmentation in both study regions occurred mainly due to the growth of high density built-up areas in previously more natural environments, while the expansion of low density built-up areas was for the most part in conjunction with pre-existing patches. The growth in urban areas resulted in ecosystem service value losses of approximately 445 million USD in Shanghai, mostly due to the decrease in natural coastal wetlands, while in Stockholm the value of ecosystem services changed very little. This study demonstrates the utility of urban and environmental indicators derived from remote sensing data via GIS techniques in assessing both the spatio-temporal dynamics of urban growth and its environmental impact in different metropolitan regions. High accuracy classifications of optical medium resolution remote sensing data are achieved thanks in part to the incorporation of texture features for both object- and pixel-based classification methods, and to the use of urban/rural masks with the latter. The landscape metrics calculated based on the classifications are useful in quantifying urban growth trends and potential environmental impact as well as facilitating their comparison. The environmental indicator results highlight the challenges in terms of sustainable urban growth unique to each landscape, both spatially and temporally. The next phase of this PhD research will involve finding valid methods of comparing and contrasting urban growth patterns and estimated environmental impact in different regions of the world and further exploration of how to link urbanizing landscapes to changes in ecosystem services via environmental indicators. / <p>QC 20141212</p>

Die fortlaufenden Veränderungen von Landnutzung und Landschaftsstruktur in Europa und weltweit beeinflussen zunehmend die Fähigkeit der Landschaft, Ökosystemleistungen (Versorgungs-, Regulierungs- und kulturelle Leistungen) bereitzustellen, und führen zum Verlust historisch gewachsener Kulturlandschaften. Dabei haben Geschwindigkeit und Intensität dieser Veränderungsprozesse seit den 1960er Jahren deutlich zugenommen und die Verfügbarkeit und Qualität von Ökosystemleistungen signifikant verändert. In den in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Agrarräumen hat sich zum Beispiel das Erosionsrisiko (im Sinne eines Verlustes an natürlichem Erosionsschutz als Indikator für Regulierungsleistung) durch die Ausräumung der Landschaft und Bildung großflächiger Agrarflächen wesentlich erhöht und das natürliche Ertragspotential (Indikator für Versorgungsleistung) wurde durch zunehmende Bodendegradation gemindert. Das Risiko von Biodiversitätsabnahme (Indikator für kulturelle Leistung) ist durch Habitatverlust und zunehmender Homogenisierung der Standorte sowie durch veränderte Bewirtschaftungspraktiken (Technisierung und Chemisierung) stark angestiegen. Dabei kommt der Biodiversität eine Schlüsselrolle bei der Nahrungsmittelproduktion, bei Nährstoff- und Wasserkreisläufen oder dem Erosionsschutz sowie der Gesundheitsfürsorge (z. B. Erholung) zu. Andererseits konnten durch Meliorationsmaßnahmen und unter Einsatz neuer Bewirtschaftungspraktiken die Getreideerträge (Indikator für Versorgungsleistung) seit Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts verdoppelt werden. Zielsetzung der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, anhand von zwei ausgewählten Untersuchungsgebieten räumlich explizit und quantitativ Veränderungen in der Landnutzung und der Landschaftsstruktur und die Auswirkungen dieser Veränderungen auf ausgewählte bodenbezogene Ökosystemleistungen für den Zeitraum von 1750 bis 2018 zu analysieren. Damit soll ein Beitrag geleistet werden, historische und heutige Landnutzungsänderungen im Kontext gesellschaftspolitischer und ökonomischer Rahmenbedingungen zu verstehen und hinsichtlich ihrer Auswirkungen auf eine nachhaltige Landnutzung, auf die Erhaltung der Biodiversität sowie auf die Vermeidung von Landschafts- und Bodendegradation zu bewerten und entsprechende Handlungsempfehlungen ableiten zu können.:Zusammenfassung II Abstract IV Danksagung VI Inhaltsverzeichnis VII Abbildungs- und Tabellenverzeichnis VIII 1 Einführung 1 1.1 Einfluss von Landschaftsveränderungen auf Ökosystemleistungen 1 1.2 Rekonstruktion historischer Landschaftszustände seit 1750 als Ausgangspunkt einer historisch-ökologischen Landschaftsanalyse 5 1.3 Von der Landschaftsanalyse zur Bewertung von Ökosystemleistungen 15 2 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 18 2.1 Veränderung der Landschaftsstruktur und treibende Kräfte 18 2.2 Veränderung der Ökosystemleistungen 25 2.3 Methodische Herausforderungen bei historischen Analysen 33 3 Schlussfolgerung 35 Literatur 37 Anhang X A1: Changes in landscape structure and ecosystem services since 1850 analyzed using landscape metrics in two German municipalities. X A2: Land use change in an agricultural landscape causing degradation of soil based ecosystem services XXIV A3: Changes of landscape structure and soil production function since the 18th century in northwest Saxony XXXVI A4: Landschaftsdynamik und Produktionsfunktion im Kontext gesellschaftlicher und ökonomischer Veränderungen seit dem 18. Jahrhundert im Raum Taucha-Eilenburg L A5: Erklärung zur Autorenschaft LXXXVI A6: Bibliographische Informationen LXXXIX / Ongoing changes in land use and landscape structure in Europe and worldwide are increasingly affecting the ability of the landscape to provide ecosystem services (provisioning, regulation and cultural services). Furthermore, they lead to the loss of historically cultural landscapes. In the process, the speed and intensity of these change processes have increased markedly since the 1960s and significantly affecting the availability and quality of ecosystem services. In the agricultural areas studied in this paper, for example, the risk of erosion (indicator of regulating service) has increased substantially due to the clearing of the countryside and formation of large-scale agricultural areas, and the natural yield potential (indicators of provisioning service) has been reduced by increasing soil degradation. The risk of biodiversity (indicator of cultural service) decline has greatly increased due to habitat loss and increasing homogenisation of sites, and changes in farming practices (mechanisation and chemicalisation). In this context, biodiversity plays a key role in food production, nutrient and water cycles or erosion control, as well as health care (e.g. recreation). On the other hand, improvement measures and the use of new farming practices have doubled cereal yields (indicators of provisioning service) since the beginning of the 20th century. The objective of this paper is to spatially and quantitatively analyse changes in land use and landscape structure and the effects of these changes on selected soil-related ecosystem services for the period from 1750 to 2018, using two selected study areas. The aim is to contribute to understanding historical and present-day land use changes in the context of socio-political and economic framework conditions and to evaluate them with regard to their effects on sustainable land use, on the conservation of biodiversity, and on the prevention of landscape and soil degradation, and to be able to derive respective recommendations for action.:Zusammenfassung II Abstract IV Danksagung VI Inhaltsverzeichnis VII Abbildungs- und Tabellenverzeichnis VIII 1 Einführung 1 1.1 Einfluss von Landschaftsveränderungen auf Ökosystemleistungen 1 1.2 Rekonstruktion historischer Landschaftszustände seit 1750 als Ausgangspunkt einer historisch-ökologischen Landschaftsanalyse 5 1.3 Von der Landschaftsanalyse zur Bewertung von Ökosystemleistungen 15 2 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 18 2.1 Veränderung der Landschaftsstruktur und treibende Kräfte 18 2.2 Veränderung der Ökosystemleistungen 25 2.3 Methodische Herausforderungen bei historischen Analysen 33 3 Schlussfolgerung 35 Literatur 37 Anhang X A1: Changes in landscape structure and ecosystem services since 1850 analyzed using landscape metrics in two German municipalities. X A2: Land use change in an agricultural landscape causing degradation of soil based ecosystem services XXIV A3: Changes of landscape structure and soil production function since the 18th century in northwest Saxony XXXVI A4: Landschaftsdynamik und Produktionsfunktion im Kontext gesellschaftlicher und ökonomischer Veränderungen seit dem 18. Jahrhundert im Raum Taucha-Eilenburg L A5: Erklärung zur Autorenschaft LXXXVI A6: Bibliographische Informationen LXXXIX

The study deals with the evaluation of landscape changes and ecosystem functions in the case study situated in the hintreland of Prague with the emphasis on the process of suburbanization. It analyzes the amounts, the range and the types of the changes of landscape due to suburbanization process and their effects on landscape structure and function. Landscape changes are evaluated using remote sensing and software ArcGIS, function and services of ecosystems are evaluated by modified Hessen method. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

A biodiversidade, as interações entre organismos e o meio físico são componentes do Sistema de Suporte da Vida no planeta, mantendo possível a vida do homem na Terra; entretanto, tem-se observado uma crescente e preocupante perda da biodiversidade, principalmente em função da perda de habitat e fragmentação, fogo, exploração excessiva dos recursos naturais e introdução de espécies exóticas e invasoras, entre outros. O Estado de São Paulo abriga dois grandes biomas brasileiros: a Mata Atlântica e o Cerrado, ambos reconhecidos como hotspots de biodiversidade, devido a grande biodiversidade e elevado grau de ameaças a que esses estão submetidos. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa propôs-se verificar a relação entre dados de riqueza de espécies (aves) e preditoras ambientais e de paisagem em diferentes regiões e escalas. Embora o Estado já conte com mapas de áreas prioritárias frutos do Biota/FAPESP de 2008, até o momento o componente de paisagem foi explorado muito superficialmente, da mesma forma que os dados biológicos não foram explorados em sua totalidade. Neste sentido, este projeto busca ir de encontro com as linhas diagnosticadas como necessárias para um maior direcionamento da ciência à conservação da biodiversidade. Foram utilizados dados pré-existentes de registros de aves no Estado de São Paulo (Brasil) compilados do banco de dado do Biota/FAPESP e do Livro vermelho de espécies ameaçadas do Estado de São Paulo. Para a análise dos dados utilizou-se de modelos aditivos generalizados (GAM), AKAIKE e análise de sensibilidade (SRC). Como principais apontamentos conclusivos escala é um fator extremamente importante e deve ser considerado ao buscar a compreensão de padrões biológicos, uma vez que, se ignorado pode resultar em relações não reais, e em decorrência disso uma má prática de conservação. Características da região de estudo, como tipo de bioma, também podem gerar diferentes relações entre variáveis ambientais e biológicas, e não devem ser subestimados; barreiras políticas não respeitam barreiras biológicas, e deve-se entender como isso pode influenciar as respostas obtidas. De todas as preditoras apenas porcentagem de floresta, altitude, precipitação e temperatura pareceram explicar todas as variáveis biológicas analisadas. Por fim, ainda observamos uma má gestão e padronização dos dados que irá ocasionar problemas na utilização e aplicação desses dados. Aqui se percebe que este viés pode ter influenciado na ausência de algumas relações ou na observação de padrões fracos. Apesar de extremante importante trabalhos com agrupamento de informações para buscar entender padrões de biodiversidade estes devem ser padronizados. / Biodiversity, the interactions between organisms and the environment are components of the Life Support System on the planet, keeping possible the man\'s life on the Earth; however, we are witnessing a growth and alarming loss of biodiversity, mainly due to habitat loss and fragmentation, fire, over-exploitation of natural resources and the introduction of exotic and invasive species, among others. The State of São Paulo is home to two major Brazilian biomes, the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado, both recognized as biodiversity hotspots, due to its high biodiversity and high level of threat to which these are subject. In this sense, this research proposed to investigate the relationship between species richness data (birds) and environmental and landscape predictors at different regions and scales. Although the state already counts with priority areas maps product of the Biota/FAPESP project (2008), the landscape component has been explored very superficially in the same way that biological data has not been fully explored. Thus, this project seeks to meet with the lines diagnosed as necessary for further direction of science to the conservation of biodiversity. Preexisting bird records data of the São Paulo\'s State (Brazil) were compiled from the databases of Biota/FAPESP and of the Red Book of endangered species of the São Paulo\'s State. For data analysis we used generalized additive models (GAM), Akaike and sensitivity analysis (SRC). The main conclusive notes were that scale is an extremely important factor and should be considered when seeking to understand biological patterns, given that if ignored may result in misleading relationships, and as result a bad conservation practice. Characteristics of the study area, such as biome, can also generate different relationships between environmental and biological variables, and should not be underestimated; political barriers do not respect biological barriers, and we should understand how this can influence the findings. Of all the predictors only forest percentage, altitude, rainfall and temperature seemed to explain all biological variables. Finally, we also observed that poor management and standardization of data will lead to problems in the use and application of such data. This bias may have influenced the absence of some relationships or the observation of weak standards. Despite been extremely important the gathering of information to try understand biodiversity patterns, these information should always be standardized.