Yes / The tribological performance of the piston assembly of an automotive engine is highly influenced by the complex flow mechanisms that supply lubricant to the upper piston rings. As well as affecting friction and wear, the oil consumption and emissions of the engine are strongly influenced by these mechanisms. There is a significant body of work that seeks to model these flows effectively. However, these models are not able to fully describe the flow of lubricant through the piston assembly. Some experimental studies indicate that droplets of lubricant carried in the gas flows through the piston assembly may account for some of this. This work describes an investigation into the nature of lubricant misting in a fired gasoline engine. Previous work in a laboratory simulator showed that the tendency of a lubricant to form mist is dependent on the viscosity of the lubricant and the type and concentration of viscosity modifier. The higher surface area-to-volume ratio of the lubricant if more droplets are formed or if the droplets are smaller is hypothesised to increase the degradation rate of the lubricant. The key work in the investigation was to measure the size distribution of the droplets in the crankcase of a fired gasoline engine. Droplets were extracted from the crankcase and passed through a laser diffraction particle sizer. Three characteristic droplet size ranges were observed: Spray sized (250–1000 μm); Major mist (30–250 μm); and Minor mist (0.1–30 μm). Higher base oil viscosity tended to reduce the proportion of mist-sized droplets. The viscoelasticity contributed by a polymeric viscosity modifier reduced the proportion of mist droplets, especially at high load.

An investigation into the light scattering properties of Saharan dust grains is presented. An electrodynamic trap has been used to levitate single dust particles. By adjusting the trap parameters, partial randomisation of the particle orientation has been introduced. While levitated, the particles were illuminated by a laser, and a rotating half-wave retarder enabled selection of vertically or horizontally polarized incident light. A laser diffractometer and linear photodiode array have been used to measure intensity at scattering angles between 0.5° and 177°. Combining these measurements with Fraunhofer diffraction as calculated for a range of appropriately-sized apertures allows the calculation of the phase function and degree of linear polarization. The phase functions and degree of linear polarisation for four case study particles are presented - the phase functions are found to be featureless across most of the scattering region, with none of the halo features or rainbow peaks associated with regularly shaped particles such as hexagonal columns or spheres. Particle models comprised of large numbers of facets have been constructed to resemble the levitated particles. Utilizing Gaussian random sphere methods, increasing levels of roughness have been added to the surfaces of these models. A Geometric Optics model and a related model, Ray Tracing with Diffraction on Facets, have been modified to calculate scattering on these particle reconstructions. Scattering calculations were performed on each of these reconstructions using a range of refractive indices and two rotation regimes – one where the orientations of the reconstructed particle were limited to match those observed when the particle was levitated, and one where the orientation was not limited. Qualitative comparisons are performed on the phase functions and degree of linear polarization, where it is observed that the addition of roughness to the modelled spheroids causes the computed phase functions to increasingly resemble those from the levitated particles. Limiting the orientation of the particles does not affect the scattering noticeably. The addition of a very small absorption coefficient does not change the comparisons considerably. As the absorption coefficient is increased, however, the quality of the comparisons decreases rapidly in all cases but one. The phase functions are quantitatively compared using RMS errors, and further comparison is performed using the asymmetry parameter.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate four different measuring methods as potentialquality control tests for Tungsten Carbide (WC) raw material used in the hard metalmanufacturing at Seco Tools Fagersta. This was warranted as the current quality testcalled the HcK test, is very time consuming and the results provided that are used formilling time calculations cannot be relied on. The four measuring methods chosen wasLaser diffraction, X-Ray diffraction, Brunauer Emmett Teller analysis and Fisher Sub-Sieve Sizer measurement. These measuring techniques were chosen by Seco ToolsThe project followed the general structure of the project cycle modified to fit the projectand involving the steps project planning, present state analysis, goals and requirementdetermination, evaluation elimination of options and final of choice of option. Thealternative methods were evaluated using an evaluation matrix containing therequirements determined to be the most relevant for the quality control process. Therequirements were measurement precision, operator influence, ease of use, time requiredand operator time required. The ability of the measurement method to distinguishbetween all of the different WC powders used a Seco Tools was put as a must requirementas the new method is meant to serve as a verification test as well as a quality test.The analysis methods were evaluated practically through experiments and therefore atesting strategy was established. Initial test on two powder types was performed so thatan early evaluation could be done. During this stage both the Laser diffraction and the XRaydiffraction were eliminated due to poor results. The BET analysis and the Fisher Sub-Sieve Sizer performed better and was therefore tested further. Randomized testing wasthe method chosen when testing with all powders to minimize the environmental impacton the testing as this could affect the results of the study.The testing showed that only the Fisher SSS was able to distinguish between all thedifferent powders making it the only viable option as a new quality test. This was onlypossible when measuring on agglomerated material and the values extracted couldtherefore not be used further in the production. The Fisher SSS also performed the bestwhen ranked against the rest of the requirements, showing a high precision whenmeasuring on deagglomerated material and a combination of the two tests was thereforeconsidered.When compared to the HcK test the Fisher SSS showed a significant reduction in lead timebut also a reduction in information gathered and eventual defects controlled. The FisherSSS provides only an average particle size measurement and since no correlation has yetbeen established between the measured particle size and the required milling times it wasrecommended that the HcK test remains.It was recommended that a study is started aimed at establishing a correlation betweenthe measured particle size and the required milling time is started to investigate if this ispossible.

A isotretinoína (ácido-13-cis-retinóico) é uma substância derivada da vitamina A. É indicada no tratamento de formas graves de acne nódulo císticas e resistentes a terapias anteriores. É uma substância termo e fotossensível, que requer cuidados especiais na formulação, produção e acondicionamento. Como atualmente existem várias preparações comerciais contendo essa substância, é importante que se estudem e validem métodos analíticos para sua determinação quantitativa, que possam ser aplicados no controle de qualidade destas formulações. O objetivo da pesquisa foi, portanto, a caracterização e a determinação quantitativa da isotretinoína, e avaliação do comportamento desta substância em três formulações farmacêuticas comercializadas no Brasil. Esta análise comparativa foi realizada através das técnicas de difração à laser, microscopia de luz polarizada, termogravimetria, e calorimetria exploratória diferencial, para caracterizar, respectivamente, a distribuição do tamanho de partícula e comportamento térmico. Não foi encontrada diferença entre o comportamento térmico das três amostras, mas na medida do tamanho de partícula, houve uma grande variação entre duas das três amostras. O tamanho de partícula é um fator conhecido que altera a absorção de moléculas no trato-gastrintestinal, podendo haver conseqüências na segurança e eficácia do produto. Foi desenvolvida e validada uma metodologia, para determinação quantitativa da isotretinoína nessas três amostras estudadas, um método de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, rápido e simples, empregando detector no UV. Duas das amostras ultrapassaram o limite de isotretinoína de 90 - 110% especificado pela Farmacopéia Americana. A apresentação, controle de qualidade e a caracterização de formulações farmacêuticas são importantes para assegurar a qualidade do produto final. Embora a cromatografia, análise térmica e determinação do tamanho de partícula sejam utilizadas pelas indústrias farmacêuticas, o tamanho de partícula ainda não é uma especificação definida pelas farmacopéias. Isso mostra a importância de futuras pesquisas, determinando o efeito dessas variações encontradas, possibilitando o estudo comparativo, entre a qualidade de produtos contendo isotretinoína em pacientes através de testes de bioequivalência. / Isotretinoin (13-cis retinoic acid), a vitamin A derivative is indicated for the treatment of several forms of acne, cystic nodules resistant to other therapies and also acts as an inhibitor of at proliferation neoplasic cells. It is a thermolabile substance, light and air sensitive and these physicochemical properties impose special cares in the formulation, development and packaging to avoid the isotretinoin degradation. Currently some preparations available on the stores contain this substance and it is important to study and validate quantitative methods to determine the quality control of these formulations. The purposes of research were to characterize, to determine quantitatively the isotretinoin and check the behavior of this substance in three pharmaceutical formulations available on the Brazilian stores. This comparative analysis was performed by laser diffraction/polarized light microscopy, thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry techniques in order to characterize, respectively, the particle size distribution and the thermal behavior. The thermal stability was found to be none a variable parameter, the isotretinoin average particle size was significantly different in 2/3 formulations. Interestingly, the particle size is a facto r known to affect the absorption of the molecules from the gastrointestinal tract and, therefore, may have consequences for the safety and the efficiency of the product. Its was also developed and validated one analytical method for quantitative determination of isotretinoin in these three samples. A simple and rapid method using an isocratic high performance liquid chromatography and UV detection was developed. The average isotretinoin content of two ranged outside the 90 -110% date showed into United States Pharmacopeia specifications. Eventually, the design, the quality control and the characterization of the pharmaceutical formulations are important to ensure the quality of the final product. Although the chromatography, thermal and particle size analysis were currently used in the pharmaceutical industry, the particle size is not a specification stated in the pharmacopeias and should be considered with more interest. It would seem important; therefore, that future research determines the full effect of particle size variation and a comparative study with pharmaceutical quality of isotretinoin products on patient exposure to isotretinoin by comparative bioequivalence testes.

Measurements of process variations and particle morphology are widely employed in the pulp and paper industry. Two techniques with high potential, infrared thermography and microparticle characterisation, are mainly used qualitatively. Quantitative thermography requires knowledge of the emittance, a material property which has not been measured under many process-relevant conditions. Quantitative characterisation of microparticles, e.g. pulp fines and mineral fillers, requires the analysis of a large number of particles, which can be accomplished using flow microscopes. Flow microscopes for pulp analysis have had insufficient spatial resolution to resolve fines and fillers. Additionally, there has been a lack of methods which can differentiate between fines and fillers in a mixed suspension. State-of-the-art instruments for particle image analysis were evaluated and compared to laser diffractometry, a measurement method based on scattering by diffraction. Laser diffractometry was found to be highly sensitive to the complex refractive index of the particles, and especially to its change due to moisture absorption. A high-resolution imaging flow cytometer and a high-resolution fibre analyser were found to be complementary for characterisation of pure fines and fines/filler mixtures, and superior to laser diffractometry. A method for differentiating between fines and fillers in a suspension based on their autofluorescence and side-scattering was proposed and qualitatively evaluated. Furthermore, a method for measuring the directional and integrated emittance of paper was developed and its accuracy was determined. Measurements on a wide range of samples showed that the emittance of fibre-based materials vary significantly with wavelength, pulp type, observation angle, and moisture content. By applying measured quantitative values of the emittance, the thermal energy emitted by sack paper samples during mechanical deformation could be quantitatively calculated. The increase in thermal energy at the time of rupture was found to correlate well with the elastic share of the mechanical energy that was stored in the sample during its elongation. In summary, the results of this work have facilitated the use of quantitative microparticle analysis and infrared thermography for pulp and paper applications. / Mätningar av processvariationer och partiklars form och storlek utförs i stor skala inom massa- och pappersindustrin. Två mättekniker med stor potential, infraröd termografi och mikropartikel-karaktärisering, används mest kvalitativt idag. Kvantitativ termografi kräver att provets emittans är känd. Emittansen är en materialegenskap som inte har mätts för många förhållanden som är relevanta inom papperstillverkning. Kvantitativ karaktärisering av partiklar kräver att ett tillräckligt stort antal partiklar analyseras, något som kan göras med flödesmikroskop. Flödesmikroskop för mäldanalys har haft otillräcklig upplösning för att karaktärisera mikrometerstora partiklar, t.ex. fines och fyllmedel. Det har heller inte funnits någon metod som kan särskilja mellan fines och fyllmedel i en blandning. Högupplösta mätinstrument för bildbaserad mikropartikelkaraktärisering utvärderades och jämfördes med en laserdiffraktometer, en mätmetod baserad på ljusspridning genom diffraktion. Laserdiffraktometerns mätresultat påverkades starkt av det brytningsindex som antogs för provet, och hur brytningsindexet ändrades med fukthalt. En högupplöst bildbaserad flödescytometer och en högupplöst fibermätare konstaterades komplettera varandra vid mätningar av mäldens finmaterial. De var även pålitligare än laserdiffraktometern vid mätningar av organiskt finmaterial. En metod för att skilja mellan organiskt och oorganiskt finmaterial i en mäld baserat på deras autofluorescens och ljusspridning presenterades och utvärderades kvalitativt. En metod för att mäta den vinkelberoende och våglängdsintegrerade emittansen hos fiberbaserade material utvecklades och dess mätnoggrannhet utvärderades. Mätningar på ett stort antal prover visade att emittansen varierade betydligt med våglängd, mäldtyp, observationsvinkel, och fukthalt. Genom att använda den uppmätta emittansen kunde den termiska energin som frigjordes av ett säckpappersprov vid brottögonblicket beräknas. Denna energi korrelerade väl med den elastiska energi som lagrades i provet medan det töjdes, fram till tidpunkten för brottet. Sammanfattningsvis har resultaten av detta arbete möjliggjort kvantitativ användning av mikropartikel-karaktärisering och infraröd termografi i massa- och papperstillämpningar. / <p>QC 20160122</p>

A isotretinoína (ácido-13-cis-retinóico) é uma substância derivada da vitamina A. É indicada no tratamento de formas graves de acne nódulo císticas e resistentes a terapias anteriores. É uma substância termo e fotossensível, que requer cuidados especiais na formulação, produção e acondicionamento. Como atualmente existem várias preparações comerciais contendo essa substância, é importante que se estudem e validem métodos analíticos para sua determinação quantitativa, que possam ser aplicados no controle de qualidade destas formulações. O objetivo da pesquisa foi, portanto, a caracterização e a determinação quantitativa da isotretinoína, e avaliação do comportamento desta substância em três formulações farmacêuticas comercializadas no Brasil. Esta análise comparativa foi realizada através das técnicas de difração à laser, microscopia de luz polarizada, termogravimetria, e calorimetria exploratória diferencial, para caracterizar, respectivamente, a distribuição do tamanho de partícula e comportamento térmico. Não foi encontrada diferença entre o comportamento térmico das três amostras, mas na medida do tamanho de partícula, houve uma grande variação entre duas das três amostras. O tamanho de partícula é um fator conhecido que altera a absorção de moléculas no trato-gastrintestinal, podendo haver conseqüências na segurança e eficácia do produto. Foi desenvolvida e validada uma metodologia, para determinação quantitativa da isotretinoína nessas três amostras estudadas, um método de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência, rápido e simples, empregando detector no UV. Duas das amostras ultrapassaram o limite de isotretinoína de 90 - 110% especificado pela Farmacopéia Americana. A apresentação, controle de qualidade e a caracterização de formulações farmacêuticas são importantes para assegurar a qualidade do produto final. Embora a cromatografia, análise térmica e determinação do tamanho de partícula sejam utilizadas pelas indústrias farmacêuticas, o tamanho de partícula ainda não é uma especificação definida pelas farmacopéias. Isso mostra a importância de futuras pesquisas, determinando o efeito dessas variações encontradas, possibilitando o estudo comparativo, entre a qualidade de produtos contendo isotretinoína em pacientes através de testes de bioequivalência. / Isotretinoin (13-cis retinoic acid), a vitamin A derivative is indicated for the treatment of several forms of acne, cystic nodules resistant to other therapies and also acts as an inhibitor of at proliferation neoplasic cells. It is a thermolabile substance, light and air sensitive and these physicochemical properties impose special cares in the formulation, development and packaging to avoid the isotretinoin degradation. Currently some preparations available on the stores contain this substance and it is important to study and validate quantitative methods to determine the quality control of these formulations. The purposes of research were to characterize, to determine quantitatively the isotretinoin and check the behavior of this substance in three pharmaceutical formulations available on the Brazilian stores. This comparative analysis was performed by laser diffraction/polarized light microscopy, thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry techniques in order to characterize, respectively, the particle size distribution and the thermal behavior. The thermal stability was found to be none a variable parameter, the isotretinoin average particle size was significantly different in 2/3 formulations. Interestingly, the particle size is a facto r known to affect the absorption of the molecules from the gastrointestinal tract and, therefore, may have consequences for the safety and the efficiency of the product. Its was also developed and validated one analytical method for quantitative determination of isotretinoin in these three samples. A simple and rapid method using an isocratic high performance liquid chromatography and UV detection was developed. The average isotretinoin content of two ranged outside the 90 -110% date showed into United States Pharmacopeia specifications. Eventually, the design, the quality control and the characterization of the pharmaceutical formulations are important to ensure the quality of the final product. Although the chromatography, thermal and particle size analysis were currently used in the pharmaceutical industry, the particle size is not a specification stated in the pharmacopeias and should be considered with more interest. It would seem important; therefore, that future research determines the full effect of particle size variation and a comparative study with pharmaceutical quality of isotretinoin products on patient exposure to isotretinoin by comparative bioequivalence testes.

A system able to simultaneously separate and pump a gas-liquid mixture was developed.<p>It works efficiently and can be used in many applications (nuclear power plants,<p>pulp and paper processing, petroleum extraction, etc.). However, this pump and separator<p>system (PASS) was especially designed to handle air-oil mixture generated in<p>aero-engine lubrication systems. The PASS combines three important functions of the<p>scavenge part of the lubrication system: the deaeration and deoiling of the air-oil mixture<p>generated in the bearing and gearbox sumps and the pumping of the oil towards<p>the tank. These are critical functions for the engine. Indeed, a poor deoiling efficiency<p>leads to a high oil consumption. This reduces the flight endurance, increases the size<p>and weight of the oil tank and has a negative impact on the environment. Poor deaeration<p>and pumping characteristics lead to problems in the cooling and the lubrication of<p>the engine bearings.<p><p>Integrating a PASS into the lubrication system allows considerable improvements<p>(and simplification) to the lubrication system architecture. An important number of<p>components are suppressed: the vent lines, the deoiler, the cyclone deaerator and the<p>scavenge pumps. This reduces the size and the weight of the lubrication system and<p>increases its reliability. Furthermore, an important part of this PhD thesis focuses on<p>reducing the oil consumption in the PASS. This improves the flight endurance, reduces<p>engine maintenance and working costs and is profitable to the environment.<p><p>In addition to the development of an advanced PASS design system, the objective of<p>this thesis was to obtain a good understanding of the separation processes occurring in<p>the PASS and to develop theoretical models able to predict the separation performance<p>for every working condition encountered in a typical aircraft flight. To achieve this<p>goal, three main tasks were performed: the development of different two-phase measurement<p>systems, the experimental tests of four different PASS architectures and the<p>theoretical development (after an extensive literature review) of correlations predicting<p>the performance of the PASS in function of the working conditions. Five specific aspects<p>of the PASS were studied: the inlet flow, the deoiling efficiency, the deaeration efficiency,<p>the pumping efficiency and the pressure drop. Finally, the models that have been developed<p>with the help of the measurement systems and of the experiments have been<p>integrated in a complete model of the lubrication system (under the EcosimPro modelling<p>environment). This helps to predict real in flight PASS working conditions and<p>performance. Indeed, the PASS is very sensitive to the engine working conditions and<p>an optimisation of the prototype size and performance is only feasible with an accurate<p>knowledge of these working conditions and a complete lubrication system model.<p>Finally, with the results of this PhD thesis, a new PASS design, optimised for different<p>aero-engine lubrication systems, is presented. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

S požadavky materiálových věd na stále menší částice jsou potřebné i nové přístupy a metody jejich klasifikace. V disertační práci jsou zkoumány struktury turbulentního proudění a trajektorie částic uvnitř dynamického větrného třídiče. Zvyšující se výpočtový výkon a nové modely turbulence a přístupy modelování komplexních plně turbulentních problémů řešením Navier-Stokesových rovnic umožňují zkoumání stále menších lokálních proudových struktur a vlastností proudění s větší přesností. Částice menší než 10 mikronů jsou více ovlivnitelné a jejich klasifikace do hrubé nebo jemné frakce závisí na malých vírových strukturách. Práce se zaměřuje na podmínky nutné ke klasifikaci částic pod 10 mikronů, což je současná hranice možností metody větrné separace. CFD software a poslední poznatky modelování turbulence jsou použity v numerické simulaci proudových polí dynamického větrného třídiče a jsou zkoumány efekty měnících se operačních parametrů na proudová pole a klasifikaci diskrétní fáze. Experimentální verifikace numerických predikcí je realizovaná prostřednictvím částicové anemometrie na základě statistického zpracování obrazu (PIV) a proudění lopatkami rotoru je vizualizováno. Predikované trajektorie částic jsou experimentálně ověřeny třídícími testy na větrném třídiči a granulometrie je určená pomocí laserové difrakční metody. Zkoumány jsou Trompovy křivky a efektivita třídění.

Cellulosananofibriller (CNFs) hör till naturens mest fundamentala byggstenar och förser naturliga material, såsom den yttre cellväggen i trä, med en otrolig styrka och styvhet. Genom att imitera träets arkitektur öppnas möjligheter upp för tillverkning av nya, biobaserade och lättviktiga strukturella material med mekaniska egenskaper som överskrider de för glasfiber, metaller och legeringar. Den ingenjörsmässiga utmaningen ligger i att framgångsrikt lyckas överföra de önskade mekaniska egenskaperna hos CNFs till filament som kan användas i material för dagligt bruk. Vid flödesfokuserad spinning av extraherade CNFs påverkar många parametrar den slutgiltiga funktionaliteten och kvaliteten hos de resulterande filamenten. För att optimera dessa processparametrar är mätning av de spunna filamentens dimensioner ett viktigt moment. Av särskilt intresse är filamentbredden, eftersom den är avgörande för de mekaniska egenskaperna. Karakterisering av filamentbredden är i dagsläget en mycket tidskrävande process där varje filament mäts manuellt i optiskt mikroskop. Det huvudsakliga målet med detta projekt är att effektivisera den nuvarande mätprocessen med avseende på både hastighet och noggrannhet med hjälp av laserspridning. I denna rapport visar vi på minst en halvering av nuvarande mättid vid användandet av en 3D-printad laseruppställning istället för ett optiskt mikroskop vid mätning av filamentbredd. Våra resultat indikerar att mätsäkerheten generellt är högre för lasermetoden jämfört med mikroskopin. Genomsnittliga standardavvikelser för mätvärden på tunnaste bredden från mikroskopi samt de två olika kurvanpassningsmetoderna vid lasermätning rapporteras vara 1.62, 0.85 (Curve fit) respektive 1.59 (Minima matching). Standardavvikelserna för tunnaste bredd korrelerar dock inte direkt mot metodernas noggrannhet eftersom de spunna filamenten uppvisar en stor variation i bredd längs med längden. En närmare jämförelse mellan mätvärden för matchade punkter på ideala och defekta filament demonstrerar att icke-uniforma och defekta filament påverkar mätnoggrannheten för laserspridningen negativt. Sammantaget stödjer våra resultat det faktum att ett tunnare filament resulterar i bättre upplösning och mindre mätfel vid mätning med laserspridning. Våra resultat visar på den stora potentialen för laserspridning som en mer effektiv mätmetod vid karakterisering av cellulosafilamentbredd. / Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are one of nature’s most fundamental building blocks, providing incredible strength and stiffness to natural materials, such as the outer cell wall layer in wood. By mimicking the architecture of wood, possibilities opens up for the fabrication of new, biobased, light-weight structural materials with mechanical properties exceeding that of glassfibers, metals and alloys. However, the engineering challenge lies in successfully managing to translate the desirable mechanical properties of the CNFs into filaments that can be used in everyday life materials. Throughout the process of spinning the extracted CNFs into filaments, many factors and parameters affect the ultimate functionality and performance of the resulting filaments. Measuring the dimensions of the spun filaments is a crucial step in further optimizing process parameters. The width of the filament especially, impacts its mechanical performance. The characterization of the cellulose filament width is currently very time-consuming as each filament is manually measured using optical microscopy. The primary goal of this project is to make the current characterization process more effective, with respect to both accuracy and speed of measurement, by using laser scattering. In this report, we demonstrate a reduction by more than a half in measurement time using a 3D-printed laser scattering setup instead of an optical microscope when measuring filament width. Our results indicate that the certainty in measurement is generally higher for lase rscattering compared to optical microscopy. The mean standard deviations (SD) for the smallest widths estimated with optical microscopy and the two curve fitting methods used for the laser measurements are reported to be 1.62, 0.85 (Curve fit) and 1.59 (Minima matching) respectively. However, standard deviations for the thinnest width does not correlate directly to the accuracy of the methods since the spun filaments show a large variation in width along the length. A closer comparison between measurement values for matched points at ideal and non-uniform filaments demonstrate that the accuracy of the laser measurements are dependent on the uniformity of the filaments, with non-uniform filaments negatively impacting the accuracy. Our overall results supports the fact that a thinner filament gives a better resolution and smaller error when measuring with laser. Our results provide evidence for the great potential of laser scattering as a more efficient method for cellulose filament width determination.