Introduktion: God rörlighet i armbågsleden är viktig för att kunna utföra dagliga aktiviteter eller vid idrottsutövande. Det är därför viktigt med reliabla och standardiserade mätmetoder för att kunna utvärdera ledrörligheten. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka inter- och intrabedömarreliabilitet för vinkelmätning av armbågsleden med den elektroniska goniometern EasyAngle. Metod: Standardiserade mätmetoder togs fram. Mätningar av aktiv och passiv rörlighet i armbågen utfördes av 3 stycken terapeuter med varierande erfarenhet av ledmätning. Mätningar för flexion, extension, pronation och supination utfördes i armbågsleden. Alla mätningar utfördes 2 gånger med ungefär 15 minuter emellan på 21 stycken testpersoner. Deltagare rekryterades genom bekvämlighetsurval. Exklusionskriterierna var: pågående skada i området, neurologisk sjukdom som kunde påverka rörligheten eller vara yngre än 20 år, och äldre än 69 år. Resultat: ICC-värdena för interbedömarreliabilitet varierade mellan 0.72-0.95. Enligt de referensvärden som studien använt så klassas de lägsta resultaten som goda, och de bästa resultaten som utmärkta. För intrabedömarreliabiliteten varierade ICC- värdena mellan 0.54-0.94 för terapeut 1, 0.65-0.94 för terapeut 2 och 0.47-0.94 för terapeut 3. Detta gör att dom lägsta resultaten gällande intrabedömarreliabiliteten kan anses som godtagbara och dom högsta som utmärkta. Konklusion: Inter- och intrabedömarreliabiliteten för mätverktyget EasyAngle vid mätning av armbågsled är enligt resultat i denna studie genomgående godtagbara till utmärkta. Då vår studie är den första i sitt slag för armbågsleden krävs vidare forskning med fler deltagare från olika studiepopulationer. Det krävs också fler studier som undersöker användbarheten av dom standardiserade mätmetoder för armbågen som tagits fram.

Techn. Universiẗat, Diss., 2001--Berlin.

Dieser Artikel beschreibt den Einsatz von Industrierobotern zur automatischen Durchführung von Messung für optische Systeme. Das Messsystem besteht neben einem Industrieroboter, ein oder mehreren Sensoren, Stromversorgungen inkl. Energieketten und einem Industrie-PC, aus einer komplexen Software mit umfangreicher Funktionalität. Die Herausforderung besteht darin maximale Flexibilität mit zuverlässigen und genauen Messungen in Einklang zu bringen. Bei einer Messung darf weder eine Kollision auftreten, noch durch falsche Bewegungsabläufe das System zum Stillstand kommen.

Remote sensing data acquisition often requires a revisit to the same target. Therefore, it is not always possible to have the same illumination and viewing conditions. Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) is an attempt to predict the reflectance of an object for any given viewing and illumination geometry by explaining the interaction of the incident energy with the target object, the medium lying between the source and the target, and the interaction of the reflected energy with the medium between the target and the sensor. In this study various factors affecting BRDF were explored. Various factors contribute to this characteristic of the surface to reflect unequally in different directions like its structure, shape, degree of absorption and transmittance. Bidirectional Reflectance Factor, Anisotropic Factor, and Anisotropic Index were used in the research. Radiances were recorded using the Sandmeier Field Goniometer of target areas at the agricultural farms of Mississippi State University.

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) tip-based nanofabrication (TBN) is a technique that directly creates a variety of nanostructures on a substrate using the nanoscale probe tips. SPM TBN possesses superior resolution and flexibility: nanostructures with feature size under 5 nm have been achieved via SPM TBN, which is beyond what the state-of-the art optical-based lithography technique can provide. However, the inherent serial nature of SPM TBN makes it a low throughput process. Multi-probe SPM systems have therefore been developed to increase the nanofabrication efficiency. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) are two most commonly used SPM TBN techniques. Most of prior work has focused on contact-mode AFM-based TBN. This work, using CMOS MEMS technology as the design and fabrication platform, develops an active conductive probe array that aims to perform parallel surface imaging and nanofabrication in non-contact STM mode. The CMOS-MEMS process provides a monolithic integration of MEMS devices with CMOS electronics that can facilitate future automation and parallel probe operation. The CMOS-MEMS probe adopts a micro-cantilever structure and applies bimorph electrothermal actuation to control the vertical displacement of the probe tips. The cantilever is designed to be stiff, with a spring constant of 36 N/m that is larger than the force gradient of the cantilever tip-sample interaction forces in the working distance regime of STM in order to avoid the tip-to-sample “snap-in” and ensure the stability of the STM feedback system. A modified Spindt tip process, compatible with post-CMOS MEMS processing, is developed to batch fabricate Ni/Pt composite tips on CMOS-MEMS probe arrays that are used as STM end-effectors. The integrated Ni/Pt tips on the MEMS probes have a tip radius down to 50 vii nm. The Spindt tip demonstrates the capability of both imaging and nanowire fabrication in STM mode. A hierarchical dual-servo STM system is constructed for the parallel STM imaging using two CMOS-MEMS probes. The system consists of a piezoelectric actuator-driven servo and an electrothermal actuator-driven servo to control the vertical displacement of two probe tips and maintain a constant current between the tips and the sample. Both servos use a proportionalintegral controller. The dual-servo STM system is capable of parallel STM image acquisition using CMOS MEMS probe arrays. An on-chip electrothermal proximity sensor pair and probes with embedded microgoniometers are designed to assist the alignment between the CMOS-MEMS probe array and the examined sample surface. The electrothermal proximity sensor pair is used to measure the separation and the non-parallelism between the probe chip and the sample. The electrothermal proximity sensor has a positioning accuracy of around 1 μm. An electrothermal microgoniometer platform is developed to hold a one-dimensional array of active CMOS-MEMS probes and serves to provide the in situ fine adjustment of relative height among these probes. The micro-goniometer has a maximum tilt of 1.2°, which is sufficient to compensate the probe chip-sample misalignment and the possible height difference among array probes introduced by process variations.

MSc Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / Background and purpose of the study The length of stay for patients with stroke in some South African government hospitals has been shown to be inadequate and there is little information on the physical impairments and functional abilities of this population once they return to the community. An assessment was done of the strength, range of movement and the presence of pain experienced by patients with stroke in the Daveyton community and the relationship between these impairments and the functional abilities of these patients was established. Research methods and procedures employed This was a quantitative study using a descriptive cross sectional study design. Thirty-four conveniently sampled patients with stroke were assessed in their Daveyton homes. The functional measures used were the Modified rivermead mobility index (MRMI) and Barthel index (BI). The strength was assessed using a hand-held dynamometer, range of movement (RoM) with a standard universal goniometer and pain with the Eleven faces pain scale. The significance of the study was set at 0.05 and the relationships between impairments and functional abilities were expressed using the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Results Significant differences were found between the strength, as well as the RoM of the affected and unaffected sides (p < 0.05). The muscles most affected by were: Biceps, Gastrocnemius and Tibialis Anterior. The smallest strength difference was found in Gluteus maximus. The ranges of movement most affected were: shoulder flexion and elbow extension. The smallest difference was found in knee extension. Eighty-five percent of the sample attained scores indicating that they were independently mobile (measured by the MRMI), and 82% were independent in activities of daily living (measured by the BI). There were good correlations between the patients’ strength impairments and their functional abilities (r = 0.54 to 0.79) and mobility (r = 0.51 to 0.76). Functional abilities and mobility had moderate to good relationships with active range of movement of shoulder flexion, lateral shoulder rotation and dorsiflexion. The percentage of patients experiencing pain was 73%, but pain displayed no relationship with functional ability (r = 0.14) and mobility (r = 0.15). Conclusion Most people living with stroke in the Daveyton community are functionally independent despite the high prevalence of pain. Stroke results in significant strength and active range of movement deficits on the affected side. Most strength impairments correlated well with the functional ability and mobility of this sample, but active range of movement impairments that influenced functional measures were mainly shoulder and ankle movements.

Einführung Der Pronation, als Bewegungsrichtung der Rückfußbewegung, ist in der biomechanischen Forschung in der Vergangenheit sehr viel Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt worden. In den unzähligen Veröffentlichungen zur Pronation wiederholen sich zwei Kernaussagen: Einerseits ist Pronation ein natürlicher Dämpfungsmechanismus, der andererseits bei übermäßiger Ausprägung zu Überlastungsschäden führen kann. Zu beiden Aussagen finden sich viele Untersuchungen, doch eindeutig belegt oder widerlegt sind beide nicht. Die vorliegende Arbeit möchte anhand von Untersuchungen zur Methodik der Bewegungsanalyse des Rückfußes dazu beitragen, den Diskrepanzen der verschiedenen Studienergebnisse auf den Grund zu gehen. Die Arbeit gliedert sich dazu in zwei Teile: Im ersten Teil werden diverse interne und externe Faktoren auf ihr pronationsbeeinflussendes Potential dargestellt. Für den zweiten Teil werden erstens das Elektrogoniometer, als gebräuchliches Messsystem der Rückfußbewegung, mit Hilfe der stereophotogrammetrischen Bewegungsanalyse (Goldstandard) validiert und zweitens innovative Messsysteme mit Schwerpunkt auf mobiler Bewegungsanalyse der Rückfußbewegung (Hall- und Drucksensoren, Gyrometer) entwickelt und ebenfalls validiert. Methodik Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde eine Reihe von Einzelstudien durchgeführt, deren Methodik schwer zu verallgemeinern ist. Grundsätzlich kamen hauptsächlich Laborstudiendesigns zur Anwendung, in denen Gelenkwinkelamplituden, -ausmaße und -geschwindigkeiten der Rückfußbewegung analysiert wurden. In den Laborstudien der Einflussfaktoren wurde die Rückfußbewegung dabei entweder mit stereophotogrammetrischer Bewegungsanalyse oder mit dem Elektrogoniometer erfasst. Bei einer Ermüdungsstudie mit Feldtestdesign wurde die Rückfußbewegung mittels Gyrometer erfasst. Zur Validierung innovativer Messsysteme der Rückfußbewegung wurde entweder die stereophotogrammetrische Bewegungsanalyse oder das Elektrogoniometer verwendet. Ergebnisse Anhand der in der Arbeit vorgenommenen Analyse der pronationsbeeinflussenden Faktoren muss geschlussfolgert werden, dass Einflussfaktoren auf die Rückfußbewegung unzureichend verstanden sind. Die Einflussfaktoren lassen sich grundsätzlich jedoch in drei Gruppen einteilen: 1. kaum erforschte Faktoren (z.B. Alter, Geschlecht, Fußdimensionen, individueller Laufstil und generelle Bewegungsart), 2. kontrovers diskutierte Faktoren (z.B. Fußform, Gelenkkoppelung, genereller Schuheinfluss und Ermüdung) und 3. gesicherte Faktoren (z.B. USG-Achsenorientierung, varus / valgus-modifizierte Schuhgeometrie, Laufgeschwindigkeit). Für Laboruntersuchungen bieten, neben der stereophotogrammetrischen Bewegungsanalyse, zwei weitere Messsysteme, Elektrogoniometer und Gyrometer, vergleichbare Resultate bei der Bestimmung der Rückfußkinematik auf. Das Elektrogoniometer zeigte mittlere bis hohe, das Gyrometer nur mittlere Korrelationen bei den betrachteten Parametern. Hall- und Drucksensoren konnten zwar für eine gegebene Stichprobe rekursiv zur Bestimmung der Rückfußparameter verwendet werden, bei unbekannten Probanden oder alternativen Schuhmodellen lagen die Bestimmtheitsmaße jedoch nicht im akzeptablen Bereich. Dennoch sind für Messungen der Sohlendeformation mit Hilfe von Hallsensoren andere Anwendungsbereiche vorstellbar und auch realisierbar. Für Felduntersuchungen der Rückfußbewegung hat das Gyrometer das größte Potential. Es war im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bereits möglich, einzelne Parameter der Rückfußbewegung (Eversiongeschwindigkeit und -ausmaß) valide in mobilen Einsatzszenarien zu bestimmen. Schlussfolgerungen und Ausblick Die wichtigste Fragestellung für die biomechanische Forschung in Bezug auf die Rückfußbewegung ist die Klärung, ob ein Zusammenhang mit der Entstehung von Überlastungsschäden besteht. Aus den Erkenntnissen dieser Arbeit lassen sich fünf Kernzielstellungen skizzieren, die beachtet werden sollten, um dieser Frage nachzugehen: 1. Entwicklung von mobilen und direkten Messsystemen, zur Erfassung der Rückfußbewegung, nicht der des Schuhs, im natürlichen Bewegungsumfeld, 2. methodische und inhaltliche Diskussion und Standardisierung der Rückfußparameter, 3. Erweiterung der isolierten Betrachtung der Rückfußbewegung auf umliegende Segmente und Gelenke, 4. Kontrolle bzw. Einbeziehung von pronationsbeeinflussenden Faktoren in Untersuchungsdesigns und 5. Durchführung von großangelegten Längsschnittuntersuchungen. / Introduction In previous biomechanical research, a lot of effort has been put into the investigation of rearfoot pronation. In numerous publications, two main assumptions have been postulated: On the one hand, pronation is considered a natural damping mechanism; on the other hand, excessive pronation may lead to overuse injuries. Both assumptions have been intensively investigated; confirmed or negated is neither of the two assumptions so far. Within the frame of this thesis the author tries to contribute to the methodological analysis of rearfoot motion to solve current discrepancies regarding rearfoot motion. The thesis is devided in two parts: In the first part, the influences of various internal and external factors on rearfoot motion are investigated. In the second part, rearfoot motion measurement devices are being validated. Firstly, the elctrogoniometer, a common device used for rearfoot motion measurements, is being validated against the stereophotogrammetric motion analysis system (golden standard) and secondly, innovative devices with their main focus on mobile measurements are being developed and validated. Methods In the case of this thesis, numerous single studies were performed, whose methods vary in such a way, that it is difficult to generalize. Mainly laboratory settings have been used, in which joint angle excursions, ranges of motion and velocities were analysed. In laboratory settings, either a stereophotogrammetric motion analysis system or an electrogoniometer were used to determine rearfoot motion. A gyrometer was utilized in a field test investigating the influence of fatigue on rearfoot motion. Either a stereophotogrammetric motion analysis system or an electrogoniometer were chosen as the golden standard to validate the innovative measurement devices. Results The results of the studies within this thesis regarding pronation influencing factors lead to the conclusion, that factors influencing rearfoot motion are not well understood so far. However, it is possible to divide the investigated factors in three groups: 1. factors, that have received little research attention (e.g. age, gender, foot dimensions, individual running style, general type of movement), 2. factors, that are controversially discussed (e.g. foot shape, joint coupling, general shoe influence, fatigue), and 3. factors that have proven to influence rearfoot motion (e.g. orientation of subtalar joint axis, varus/valgus modified shoes geometry, running velocity). For laboratory investigations two innovative measurements devices, electrogoniometer and gyrometer, have shown similar results compared to the stereophotogrammetric motion analysis system. The correlations of the analyzed parameter were medium to high for the electrogoniometer and medium for the gyrometer. In a known subject sample, using the signals of hall resp. pressure sensors resulted in acceptable rearfoot motion values. However, applied on the data of unknown subjects or alternative shoe models, the calculated rearfoot motion values were way out of an acceptable range. Nevertheless, especially the measurement of midsole deformation by using hall sensors may be useful in further usage scenarios The gyrometer has the highest potential for rearfoot motion measurements within field testings. It was already possible to validly determine various rearfoot motion parameters (eversion velocity and excursion) in mobile testing scenarios. Conclusions and outlook The clarification of a possible correlation between various pronation parameters and the development of overuse injuries turns out to be the most important question for further biomechanical research concerning rearfoot motion. The findings of the thesis indicate five major objectives that should be considered in future research: 1. Development of mobile and direct measurement devices to determine rearfoot motion, not shoe motion, in a natural movement environment, 2. methodological and contentual discussion and standardization of rearfoot motion parameters, 3. extension of the isolated perspective of a single joint motion to adjoining segments and joints, 4. control or integration of rearfoot influencing factors in the testing design and 5. realization of comprehensive longitudinal studies.

The breakthrough in mobile technology and the development of smartphones, supplied with sensing devices such as Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), has made it possible to obtain accurate and reliable data on the angular velocity for different objects. The available technical sensors for wrist movements, such as electrogoniometers, are costly, time-consuming, and need a particular computer program to be analyzed. Therefore, there is a need to develop user-friendly risk assessment methods for wrist angular velocity measurements. This master thesis aimed to validate the accuracy of a newly developed iPhone application (App), "ErgoHandMeter," for wrist velocity in actual work tasks, by comparing the “ErgoHandMeter” to standard electrogoniometers. The project study was performed with four participants, two females and two males, from three jobs performing actual work tasks. The total angular velocity obtained by the mobile application was compared with the angular velocity data from the standard electrogoniometer. The total angular velocities obtained from the smartphone and the goniometer were computed at the 10th, 50th and 90th percentile for the four subjects. The 50th percentile of goniometer-flexion velocity (G-flex) was 7.4 ± 5.4°/s, for the goniometer-total (G-tot) 8.7 ± 6.5)°/s and for App 7.2 ± 4.9°/s. The correlation coefficient for the 50th percentile of goniometer-flexion (G-flex) parameter and smartphone application was 0.994. For the goniometer-total (G-tot) and the application, it was 0.993. In a Bland-Altman plot the mean difference between G-flex and App for the 50th percentile was -0.18 °/s and for G-tot and App was -1.54 °/s, i.e. the App was lower in average. The limit of the agreement between G-Flex and App, and G-tot and App stayed within two standard deviations. For G-Flex and App (mean+1.96SD) was 1.34 °/s, (mean-1.96SD) was -1.71 °/s, while for G-tot and App (mean+1.96SD) was 1.89 °/s, (mean-1.96SD) was -4.96 °/s, indicating an adequate agreement between the two methods. A limitation was that the included occupations were all relatively low velocity. However, in conclusion, the results indicate that the two methods agree adequately and can be used interchangeably. / Genombrottet inom mobiltekniken och utvecklingen av smarttelefoner med sensorer som t.ex. tröghetsmätningsenheter (IMU) har gjort det möjligt att få exakta och tillförlitliga uppgifter om vinkelhastigheten för olika objekt. De tillgängliga tekniska sensorerna för handledsrörelser, t.ex. elektrogoniometrar, är dyra, tidskrävande och de samplade signalerna kräver ett särskilt datorprogram för att analyseras. Det finns därför ett behov av att utveckla användarvänliga riskbedömningsmetoder för mätningar av handledens vinkelhastighet. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att validera noggrannheten hos en nyutvecklad iPhone-applikation (App), "ErgoHandMeter", för handledshastighet i verkliga arbetsuppgifter, genom att jämföra "ErgoHandMeter" med vanliga elektrogoniometrar. Projektstudien genomfördes med fyra deltagare, två kvinnor och två män, från tre yrken som utförde verkliga arbetsuppgifter. Den totala vinkelhastigheten som erhölls av mobilapplikationen jämfördes med vinkelhastighetsdata från standardelektrogoniometern. De totala vinkelhastigheterna som erhållits från smarttelefonen och goniometern beräknades vid den 10:e, 50:e och 90:e percentilen för de fyra försökspersonerna. Den 50:e percentilen för goniometer-flexionshastigheten (G-flex) var i genomsnitt 7,4°/s och för goniometertotalen (G-tot) 8,7°/s. Korrelationskoefficienten (r) för den 50:e percentilen för goniometer-flexionsparametern (G-flex) och smartphone-applikationen var 0,994. För goniometer-total (G-tot) och applikationen var r 0,993. I en Bland-Altman-plot var den genomsnittliga skillnaden mellan G-flex och appen för den 50:e percentilen -0,18°/s och för G-tot och appen -1,54°/s (App var lägre än Gon). Medelvärdet för differensen mellan G-Flex och App och G-tot och App ligger inom två standardavvikelser. För G-Flex och App (medelvärde+1,96SD) var 1,34 °/s, (medelvärde-1,96SD) var -1,71 °/s, medan för G-tot och App (medelvärde+1,96SD) var 1,89 °/s, (medelvärde-1,96SD) var -4,96 °/s. Vilket tyder på en tillräcklig överensstämmelse mellan de två metoderna. En begränsning var att de inkluderade yrkena alla hade relativt låg hastighet. Sammanfattningsvis visar dock resultaten att de två metoderna stämmer väl överens och kan användas på ett utbytbart sätt.

Today, movement measurements are made manually in healthcare using a goniometer. The measurements are often time-consuming and specially trained practitioners are needed, furthermore the readings are dependent on the practitioner's eye measurements. New technology has been introduced to make the same measurements using external sensors which have the disadvantage that they can be costly and space consuming. Recently, depth camera technology has introduced an alternative solution to make it more efficient for both patients and practitioners. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether Apple depth camera technology can replace current technology by being able to perform motion measurements with only one Ipad/Iphone with a built-in depth camera. For this, a prototype has been developed to be able to automatically calculate medically relevant angles by filming a person. Various motion measurements have been performed and the measurement results have been analysed. Apple depth camera has high precision in the measured values. However, a larger study needs to be performed in order to be able to determine whether Apple's depth camera could replace current technology. / Idag görs rörelsemätningar manuellt i vården med hjälp av en goniometer. Mätningarna är ofta tidskrävande och kräver utbildade utövare samt är beroende av utövarens ögonmått. Det har introducerats ny teknik för att göra samma mätningar med hjälp av externa sensorer, vilket har nackdelen att de kan vara kostsamma och utrymmeskrävande. På senare tid har djupkameratekniken introducerats som en alternativ lösning för att effektivisera för både patienter och vårdpersonal. Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka om Apples djupkamerateknik kan ersätta nuvarande teknik genom att kunna utföra rörelsemätningar med endast en Ipad/Iphone med inbyggd djupkamera. För detta har en prototyp utvecklats för att automatiskt kunna beräkna medicinskt relevanta vinklar genom att filma en person. Olika rörelsemätningar har sedan utförts och mätresultaten har analyserats. Resultaten av analysen visar att Apples djupkamera har hög precision i mätvärdena. Dock behöver en större undersökning utföras för att kunna konstatera om Apples djupkamera helt skulle kunna ersätta nuvarande teknik.

Idag görs rörelsemätningar manuellt i vården med hjälp av en goniometer. Mätningarna är ofta tidskrävande och kräver utbildade utövare samt är beroende av utövarens ögonmått. Det har introducerats ny teknik för att göra samma mätningar med hjälp av externa sensorer, vilket har nackdelen att de kan vara kostsamma och utrymmeskrävande. På senare tid har djupkameratekniken introducerats som en alternativ lösning för att effektivisera för både patienter och vårdpersonal. Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka om Apples djupkamerateknik kan ersätta nuvarande teknik genom att kunna utföra rörelsemätningar med endast en Ipad/Iphone med inbyggd djupkamera. För detta har en prototyp utvecklats för att automatiskt kunna beräkna medicinskt relevanta vinklar genom att filma en person. Olika rörelsemätningar har sedan utförts och mätresultaten har analyserats. Resultaten av analysen visar att Apples djupkamera har hög precision i mätvärdena. Dock behöver en större undersökning utföras för att kunna konstatera om Apples djupkamera helt skulle kunna ersätta nuvarande teknik. / Today, movement measurements are made manually in healthcare using a goniometer. The measurements are often time-consuming and specially trained practitioners are needed, furthermore the readings are dependent on the practitioner's eye measurements. New technology has been introduced to make the same measurements using external sensors which have the disadvantage that they can be costly and space consuming. Recently, depth camera technology has introduced an alternative solution to make it more efficient for both patients and practitioners. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether Apple depth camera technology can replace current technology by being able to perform motion measurements with only one Ipad/Iphone with a built-in depth camera. For this, a prototype has been developed to be able to automatically calculate medically relevant angles by filming a person. Various motion measurements have been performed and the measurement results have been analysed. Apple depth camera has high precision in the measured values. However, a larger study needs to be performed in order to be able to determine whether Apple's depth camera could replace current technology.