The role of biotic mechanisms in baculovirus (BV) dispersal was investigated using three Lepidopteran pests; Plodia interpunctella (Hubner), Ephestia cautella Walker and Mamestra brassicae L. and their respective BVs. The first two, pyralid moths, are pests of stored products, and the third is a pest of brassicas. Detailed host biology and virus mortality studies were undertaken to provide background information for the main investigation of virus dispersal using P.interpunctella. BV infectionincreased larval activity and thus BV dispersal in all three species until the disease at an advanced stage caused sluggish behaviour and mortality. However, larva to larva virus transmission was limited, especially as the integuments of diseased pylarids did not rupture and cannibalism was rare when a suitable food supply was available. P.interpunctella adults which received a sub-lethal BV dose in the larval stages appeared normal but the proportion of eggs oviposited, the viability of the eggs and the survival of the progeny were reduced. However, no BV was detected in the adult stage. Transovum transmission occurred if the adults were externally contaminated with BV. Scavangers, predators and adult parasitoids which fed on diseased prey voided viable BV in their faeces. This contaminated the larval medium and resulted in larval infection. The predators tested readily fed on diseased prey but the parasitoids were less able to compete with BV for hosts, Bracon hebetor Say preferentially avoided diseased hosts. There was little evidence to indicate that BV can be mechanically vectored between host larvae on the ovipositor of a parasitoid or the mouthparts of a predator. The relative potential of the host and other biotic mechanisms to cause BV dispersal is discussed.

DNA barcoding has illuminated genetically distinct lineages within what appears to be one morphological species. For example, a large-scale DNA barcode analysis of Lepidoptera in the Área de Conservación Guanacaste has revealed that 8% of the morphospecies show more than one DNA barcode lineage. To assess the evolutionary significance of five of these lineages I conducted further molecular analyses by sequencing mitochondrial cytochrome b, nuclear Elongation Factor 1α and ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer 2, and compare their gene phylogenies with the provisional species tree hypothesized by DNA barcode genetic distances. Both mitochondrial and nuclear markers support the existence of three cryptic species in one of the five cases. Morphological and ecological correlates are still lacking to understand the origin of this divergence. The lack of corroboration between markers in the four remaining species either suggests that the chosen nuclear markers have not diverged since speciation, or there has been recent hybridization between lineages. In one case, hybridization is strongly suggested. / Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Genome Canada through the Ontario Genomics Institute

Thesis (Doctoral)--University of Stockholm, 1983. / Reprints of papers included in thesis appended. Includes bibliographical references.

Bibliography: pages 47-55. / The statement that similar sorts of plants often have similar medicinal properties (Le. contain similar chemicals) is at least 300 years old, while the concept probably dates back several thousand years (Stace, 1980). Indeed, a knowledge of the secondary chemicals produced by different plant species has played an important role since the early stages of man's cultural, and probably evolutionary, development (e.g. Leopold and Ardrey, 1972). Until recently, however, the biological role of this large group of compounds has remained largely obscure, with many plant physiologists regarding them as waste products and of no possible survival value to plants (Harborne, 1982). In recent years a tremendous increase in attention paid to these compounds has led to the suggestion that plant secondary substances evolved as herbivore deterrents, and diversified with the plants producing them as herbivores evolved various means of coping with their toxicity. In what follows I present an overview of events leading to the establishment of this theory, and a history of the discovery that some insect herbivores have turned the toxicity of plant secondary compounds to their own advantage, thereby becoming exclusively associated with toxic food plants. It will be seen that although this theory of plant-herbivore coevolution has become generally accepted, it has yet to be tested for a wide range of herbivores and chemical types. From this view I have taken a detailed look at a specific group of herbivores and plant toxins: Lepidoptera feeding on cyanide-producing plants.

The distribution of internal ocelli has been extended to include not only additional anocellate moths but also two species of butterflies. The possible presence of internal ocelli of a different external structure in other Ropalocera is also examined. The structure of internal ocelli is examined by light and electron microscopy. A unique circular rhabdom apparently composed of a single retinular cell was observed in the internal ocelli of sphingids. Pigment cells were found to be absent. Observations were also made on the synapse between first and second order neurons where an apparent axosomatic synapse was found. A nerve complex was found to be associated with the internal ocelli of moths. Nerve branches were found to connect the ocelli to the antenna! nerve, optic lobe, corpus cardiacum and sometimes the tegumentary nerve as well as the external ocellus. Adult moths and butterflies reported to lack external ocelli were found to possess a pair of small external ocelli located on the vertex posterior to the antennae and dorso-medial to the compound eyes. Scanning electron microscopy and histological studies showed the external ocellus to consist of a corneal lens about 26 µ in diameter with cells beneath it. A nerve branch was found to extend from these cells to the internal ocellus in moths. Thus the possibility of a two-part ocellus exists. / Master of Science

The New World Junonia butterflies include well-studied model organisms yet their phylogeny remains unresolved by traditional cox1 DNA barcodes. Sixteen Junonia mitochondrial genomes were sequenced using next generation MiSeq technology. Junonia lemonias, an Old World species, has mitochondrial genome features typical of Ditrysian Lepidoptera, and synteny is maintained throughout Junonia. Analysis of Junonia mitogenomes produced a robust phylogeny that was used with biogeographic information to infer that Junonia crossed the Pacific Ocean to invade the New World on 3 separate occasions. Junonia vestina, a high elevation species from the Andes Mountains, shows high altitude adaptation in the mitochondrial protein coding loci atp6, atp8, cox1, cob, nad1, and nad2, with the strongest effects seen in cox1 and nad1. There is some overlap between these genes with human loci that have disease associations with the same amino acid positions which could help elucidate the function of high elevation mutations in J. vestina. / February 2016

A THESIS PRESENTED TO CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY DEGREE IN HORTICULTURE. IN THE FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES 2014 / Codling moth ([Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae]) infest pomes resulting in high production losses to fruit farmers in South Africa and globally. Many farmers are adopting biocontrol methods including the use of entomopathogens as alternatives to synthetic insecticides for sustainable management of Arthropod pests. Research activities on screening and application of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) have intensified in recent years. This study was carried out to isolate and identify virulent indigenous entomopathogenic fungal strains from soils of selected locations in the Western Cape region of South Africa that are pathogenic against codling moth (Cydia pomonella (Linn) [Lepidoptera: Totricidae]) and to evaluate the possiblility of combining semiochemicals and fungal inoculums in a simulated attract-and-fungus contamination system for codling moth control. Soil samples were collected from 10 locations in the Western Cape, South Africa for the isolation of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) by baiting the soil samples with 5th instar larvae of codling moths. Fungal strains were identified and characterized using light microscopy and DNA analysis (internal transcribed spacer region) and elongation factor 1-α (EF 1-α) genes of fungal cultures. Thirty-nine (39) isolates belonging to six species were obtained; Purpureocillium lilacinum (8 isolates), Fusarium oxysporum (five isolates), Fusarium polyphialidicum (two isolates), Beauveria pseudo-bassiana (one isolate), Aspergillus flavus (three isolates) and Metarhizium robertii (20 isolates). Generally, M. robertsii was the most frequently encountered species representing 51% of the total number of isolates collected from the soil samples. This is the first report of the isolation of M. robertsii in southern Africa. A screening test to identify the most virulent fungal strains against codling moth was carried out on 39 isolates by immersing 5th instar larvae of C. pomonella into aqueous spore suspension 1 x 108 conidia ml-1. Mortality data from the immersion bioassay indicated that the 39 fungal isolates were pathogenic against fifth instar larvae of codling moth inducing 47-85% insect mortality at an infective concentration of 1 x108 spores’ ml-1, 5 days post-treatment. Two fungal strains MTL151 and GW461 induced over 85% larval mortality and were selected for further evaluations. The effect of MTL151 and GW461 on egg hatchability of 0-day old eggs was evaluated by exposing freshly laid eggs on wax papers that were pre-treated with fungal spores ranging from 103 -108 spores/ml. Egg hatchability reduced significantly from 93-71% (GW461) and 95-66% (MTL151) as spore concentration increases from1 x 103 to 1 x 108 spores ml-1, respectively. The highest spore concentration significantly inhibited egg hatchability resulting in lower egg hatchability compared to that obtained with the cypermethrin containing commercial insecticide (Fruitfly [registered by Kombat (PTY) Ltd] ) tested at the recommended dose of 0.25 ml/250 ml of water. The potential of the two M. robertsii strains to protect apples from infestation by codling moth neonates was assessed in an apple fruit bioassay under laboratory and field bioassay. Codling moth neonates were exposed to apples that were sprayed topically with varied conidia concentrations (103 - 108 sporesml-1). The mean number of participating apple fruits having developing/developed larvae in the core/flesh significantly reduced from 5.3 to 1 and 7.6 to 1 for MTL151 and GW461, respectively as spore concentrations increased from 1 x103 to 1x 108 spores/ml-1. A concurrent decrease in apple fruit rot as conidia concentration increased was observed. Up to 90% of apples treated with 1 x 108 spores/ml-1 had no larva present in their cores and this result compared favourably with the commercial pesticide (Fruitfly) used at a recommended dose of 0.25g/250 ml of water. No significant difference was found between the EC50 values of 1.2 x 103 (CI=1.2 x 102 -1 x 105) (MTL151) and 1.1 x 105 (CI =7 x103 – 5.6x105) (GW461) spores ml-1. However, neither the two M. robertsii strains nor the insecticide deterred the neonates from feeding on the surface of the fruits. The attraction responses of male and female adult codling moths to butyl hexanoate and codlemone blend; butyl hexanoate (0.025 mg / ml of hexane) and codlemone (0.1 mg / ml of hexane) in a ratio of 1:1 (0.5 ml: 0.5 ml from both solutions) were assessed in a one-choice wind tunnel olfactory bioassay during scoto-phase in the absence of fungal spores. The blend attracted more females (69%) than males (66.7%), however these responses were not significantly different (P > 0.5). The prospect of integrated use of entomopathogenic fungal conidia and semiochemical blend for control of C. pomonella adults was assessed in a wind tunnel containing the combo lure and M. robertsii (MTL151) spores formulated as a powder (250 mg) or aqueous spore suspension (3.1 x 108 spores m-1 ± 7 x 102 sporesml-1). Insect attraction, mean number of spores picked per insect and insect mortality was assessed. No significant difference (P > 0.5) was observed in the number of inoculi picked by unsexed adult moths in the two conidial formulations tested; spore powder (3.1 x 103 ± 1 x 103 spores ml-1) and aqueous spore suspension (3.1 x 103 ± 7 x 102 spores ml-1). No mortality was recorded among fungus or control-treated moths. Both M. robertsii (MTL151) spore formulations did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect the attraction responses of the insects to the combo lure; powder (73.3 ± 3.3%) and aqueous (68.6 ± 2.9%) compared to the control treatment (without the fungal spores) (70 ± 0.5 %). These results suggest that the fungus did not inhibit the attraction of moths by semiochemicals. Despite the successful autoinoculation of moths with fungal spores, the level of contamination was too low to induce mortality among adult moths. This study opens up opportunities for research in attract-and-fungus contamination delivery systems. This is the first report of the occurrence of M. robertsii in the southern Africa. Further, results from this study indicates that C. pomonella is susceptible to indigenous South African entomopathogenic fungi and 2 indigenous M. anisopliae strains, MTL151 and GW461 provided adequate protections against codling moth larval infestations of apple fruits. Future research endeavours to improve adherence of conidia to adult moth cuticle is recommended. Key words: Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), codling moth, B. pseudobassiana, M. robertsii, larvae, pathogenicity and biological control, coddlemone, butyl hexanoate, attraction, semiochemicals.

Submitted by Dominick Jesus (dominickdejesus@hotmail.com) on 2016-02-04T19:41:05Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese_Gilcélia Melo Lourido.pdf: 20888028 bytes, checksum: 7a8dcd7a78651bc696b8a4974d425bea (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-02-04T19:41:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese_Gilcélia Melo Lourido.pdf: 20888028 bytes, checksum: 7a8dcd7a78651bc696b8a4974d425bea (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-06-20 / Hedylidae occurs exclusively in the Neotropical region and historically has been classified as a subfamily of Geometridae. This work presents a treatment on the morphology of the family in order to use new characters which may permit the analysis of phylogenetic relationships among the species. The family is redescribed using these new characters and the species are redescribed or described using standardized descriptions. An identification key for the genera and species and new geographical records are presented. The primary types of most of the species were examined. A total of 111 adults characters, being 64 from male specimens, 19 from female specimens and 28 from both sexes, were used for the phylogenetic analysis. The out-groups used in the analysis, all considered sister-groups of Hedyloidea, included two species of Papilionoidea, and one species of Hesperioidea. The phylogenetic relationships were estimated based on cladistics, through the use of a heuristic search. For support of clades it was used Bremer index. The analysis resulted in two equally parsimonious cladograms, with 610 steps (CI = 0.33; RI = 0.69; RRI = 0.23) and strict consensus with 612 steps, having a CI, RI and RRI equal to that of the two most parsimonious cladograms. Based on this phylogenetic analysis the following taxa were revalidated: Hedyle Guenée, 1857, gen rev. Phellinodes, Guenée, 1857, gen. rev., Phellinodes interrupta Warren, 1904, sp. rev., P. cellulata Dognin, 1911, sp. rev. and P. zikani Prout, 1932, sp. rev. Seven new species were described. Hedylidae now consists of three genera and 46 species. For each taxon was presented the synonymic list, biological data, seasonal and geographic records and information on the types. / Hedylidae ocorre exclusivamente na região Neotropical e já foi tratada como subfamília de Geometridae. Este trabalho apresenta um tratamento sobre a morfologia do grupo a fim de utilizar novos caracteres que possibilitem analisar as relações filogenéticas entre as espécies. A família é redescrita à luz desses novos caracteres e as espécies são redescritas ou descritas de forma padronizada. Uma chave de identificação para gêneros e espécies é apresentada e são feitos novos registros geográficos. Os tipos primários da maioria das espécies foram examinados. Para análise filogenética, foram levantados 111 caracteres de adultos, 64 de machos, 19 de fêmeas e 28 de ambos os sexos para 46 espécies de Hedylidae. Os grupos externos utilizados na análise, considerados grupo–irmão de Hedyloidea, foram Papilionoidea (duas espécies) e Hesperioidea (uma espécie). As relações filogenéticas foram estimadas com bases cladísticas, através de busca heurística. Para suporte dos clados, foi utilizado o índice de Bremer. A análise resultou em dois cladogramas igualmente parcimoniosos, com 610 passos (CI = 0,33; RI = 0,69; RRI = 0,23) e consenso estrito com 612 passos, CI, RI e RRI iguais ao dos dois cladogramas mais parcimoniosos. Com base na análise filogenética os seguintes táxons foram revalidados, Hedyle Guenée, 1857 gen. reval., Phellinodes Guenée, 1857 gen. reval., Phellinodes interrupta Warren, 1904, sp. reval., P. cellulata Dognin, 1911, sp. reval. e P. zikani Prout, 1932, sp. reval. Sete espécies novas foram descritas. Hedylidae passa a ser constituída de três gêneros e 46 espécies. Para cada táxon foi apresentada a lista sinonímica, dados biológicos, registros geográficos, sazonais e informações sobre os tipos.

The evolutionary biology of 14 species of Maniolini (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) was studied. Electrophoretic analysis of 35 enzyme loci identified a larger number of alleles than an1 levels of polymorphism similar to those found in other Lepidoptera. In Maniola jurtina, some populations exhibited a massive heterozygote deficit and sex associated allele frequency differentiation at the GOT-l locus. Allele frequencies in pre- and post-aestivation jurtina from southern Europe were significantly different. At some loci, significant annual differences in allele frequencies were noted. A significant correlation between geographic and genetic distance in allele frequencies was observed, but no correlation was detected between heterozygosity and land area in insular populations. Cluster analysis and nonmetric multidimensional scaling per~ormed on electrophoretic data from populations of Maniola jurtina revealed a dichotomy between 'Eastern' and 'Western' subspecies groups. The analysis of Manioline species fitted existing taxonomies. Genetic differences between Maniola species were much smaller than those between Pyronia and Hyponephele species. Ultrastructural studies of the Maniola Jullien organs revealed a species-specific tooth pattern on the inner surfaces. It is suggested that these structures may be sound production mechanisms of great evolutionary significance to the species. Maniolini ova were studied and it is suggested that their form and chorionic sculpturing owe much to selection induced by oviposition strategy. Chaetotaxy of first instar larvae was undertaken and morphometric analysis of setal lengths was found to be useful, but not unambiguous. Multivariate analysis of chaetotaxy data showed a significant correlation with electrophoretic data. viii The evolution and zoogeography of Maniola is discussed. It is suggested that disjunction, founder effect, rapid post-glacial colonisation and bottlenecking have played a major roles in effecting rapid speciation. It is further suggested that all Maniola species are very recent, perhaps having evolved within the last 50,000 years, and some species almost certainly have evolved in postglacial times •

Many of the European butterfly species have declined rapidly over the past decades. The cause is thought to be habitat loss due to factors such as increased tree cover, afforestation and intensified agriculture. I analyzed nation-wide data on butterfly occurrences in Sweden, to explore whether occurrences of individual species, grassland dependent species, grassland specialists, red-listed species, and moths, have increased or declined over a period of five years. I found that four species had significantly declined and eight had increased. The results were in accordance with other finds from Sweden, as well as from the UK, regarding the declining species. In contrast, the results regarding the increasing species only partly confirmed previous studies. I also found that grassland specialists and red-listed species had increased, possibly reflecting the fact that Sweden has a relatively large amount of boreal landscapes containing patches of clear-cuts and semi-natural grasslands.