Stricter regulations concerning emissions from road traffic and increasing fuel prices has lead to an interest in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Today even manufacturers of heavy duty vehicles are introducing hybrid alternatives. Batteries are expensive and a complex part in HEVs, and ways of determining a battery’s capacity is a current research topic. When a battery is used it ages, i.e. the capacity decreases and the impedance rises. Since battery cost is high, it is important to be able to determine battery ageing properly. The focus of this master thesis has been on impedance measurement methods for Li-ion batteries. The work has been carried out in cooperation with Scania CV AB. When a battery is aged, the impedance increases. Monitoring ageing mechanisms could enable increased lifetime of the batteries through optimized usage in for example heavy duty hybrid vehicles. In this work, Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) has been compared with Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). A major difference between these methods is that HPPC uses pulses of high direct current, whereas a small alternating current perturbation is used in EIS. EIS give information about different mechanisms influencing the battery impedance, e.g. internal resistance and charge transfer resistance, but requires expensive and complex laboratory equipment. HPPC gives less detailed information about the impedance, but is more similar to field applications for a vehicle. A literature survey showed that much research is conducted on in-situ impedance measurements of batteries. One example is the long-term demonstration of an Impedance Measurement Box (IMB), which is currently carried out at Idaho National Laboratory. The method uses a sum-of-sines signal consisting of octave harmonics for a fast impedance measurement with good precision. The results showed a good correlation with laboratory EIS measurements. The experimental part of this project suggest that a linear correlation  exists between the discharge resistance from HPPC measurements and the sum of internal resistance and charge transfer resistance from EIS measurements. The linear fitting did not have very good R-squared value but a residual analysis showed that the residuals were randomly scattered around zero, indicating that a linear fitting is suitable. However, the precision of the results is too poor for the correlation to be useful in a real HEV application. Additional work to improve the linear fitting is recommended. Furthermore, it was showed that AC-components have to be used as a measurement signal in order to measure the complex impedance of a battery. A paired t-test was conducted in order to study if noise could be used as that signal for a battery under load. The impedance at 100 Hz was calculated, which corresponds to the second harmonic of the power grid. The difference between this impedance and the impedance measured at 100 Hz with EIS was statistically tested. For shorter times pans (in this case 20 milliseconds) after applying the DC pulse, using noise cannot be ruled out for measuring a battery’s impedance under load. But for longer time spans after applying the DC pulse (in this case 1.3 seconds), there was a significant difference between the two methods. Concentration gradients caused by mass transfer limitations could be causing this effect.

Lithium-ion batteries are a rapidly growing power source for mobile applications such as electric vehicles. A battery model algorithm that estimates and predicts important battery parameters like terminal voltage and state-of-charge is necessary to maintain safe operation during discharge. Hence, a semi-empirical electrochemical-based model was proposed and implemented in MATLAB for discharge simulation and parameter estimation. This thesis also investigated several essential factors like internal resistance and operational temperature, which impact a battery cell during discharge.  The proposed model was a modification of Shepherd’s model that included both kinetic and diffusive components representing the total battery overpotential and a temperature- dependent coefficient. These were used for the determination of the battery’s internal resistance and the temperature effect. The model accounts for all dynamic characteristics of a Li-ion battery, including non-linear open-circuit voltage, internal resistance, discharge current, and capacity.  Model validation was performed using test profiles, including data provided by the battery manufacturer and experimental data for a test profile provided by Saab Dynamics. The simulated profiles were found to match the measured profiles. Although, some deviations occurred, especially during rapid changes in C-rates. The proposed model in this work shows that the simulation results compared to the experimental data had deviations within ~2% for the constant current discharge test, and the dynamic model managed to cover the experimental discharge voltage during different temperatures with good consistency and minor errors. Therefore, the proposed model can compete with other battery modeling methods.

In this study we develop a computational approach to the solution of an inverse modelling problem concerning the material properties of electrolytes used in Lithium-ion batteries. The dependence of the diffusion coefficient and the transference number on the concentration of Lithium ions is reconstructed based on the concentration data obtained from an in-situ NMR imaging experiment. This experiment is modelled by a 1D time-dependent PDE describing the evolution of the concentration of Lithium ions with prescribed initial concentration and fluxes at the boundary. The material properties that appear in this model are reconstructed by solving a variational optimization problem in which the least-square error between the experimental and simulated concentration values is minimized. This optimization problem is solved using an innovative gradient-based method in which the gradients are obtained with adjoint analysis. In the thesis we develop and validate a computational framework for this reconstruction problem. Reconstructed material properties are presented for a lab-manufactured and a commercial battery electrolyte providing insights which complement available experimental results. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Electrode microstructure influences ionic transport and electronic transport and is a key factor that affects lithium-ion battery performance. Non-uniform microstructure or heterogeneity in battery electrodes has long been observed and leads to non-uniform transport properties. This work provides a better understanding of in-plane heterogeneity at millimeter length scale and through-plane heterogeneity at micrometer length scale, through a combination of experiment and modeling. The first part of this work develops the aperture probe technique, which is an experimental method and associated model to locally estimate ionic transport, represented by MacMullin number, in the electrode. By generating contour maps of MacMullin number, the in-plane variation of ionic transport is visualized in the electrodes. The local ionic transport measurement technique is validated by comparing with another measurement technique and showing an agreement between the results obtained from the two techniques. The second part of this work focuses on characterizing dual-layer anodes that consist of two layers of coating with distinctly different microstructures. The aperture probe technique was adapted to determine the MacMullin numbers in the two layers separately. The method was validated by a series of virtual experiments and by comparing in one case to an electrode film that was delaminated from the current collector and experimentally sampled from both sides. Because both the electronic transport and the ionic transport are found to be related with the electrode microstructure, it is of interest to understand how these two transport properties relate to each other. The local electronic conductivity and MacMullin number of several commercial-grade electrodes were mapped. The correlation between the two transport properties is distinct for each electrode and significant at length scales larger than about 6 mm. The last part of this work investigates how heterogeneity of ionic transport affects the cycling performance of a lithium-ion cell. A localized MacMullin number measurement is made to characterize the ionic transport heterogeneity of electrodes prior to cycling. Then synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction is applied to analyze the heterogeneity in state of lithiation after high-rate cycling. When comparing the ionic transport map and the state-of-charge map, no strong correlation is observed. While this experiment was inconclusive, it suggests that other factors are more responsible for spatial variations in state of lithiation.

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries are common materials in everyday applications. The most frequently used cathode material, LiCoO2, provides high energy density and stable charge/discharge performance. However, LiCoO2 is toxic and relatively expensive, therefore, other alternatives are being sought after in the development of battery materials, such as LiMn0.33Ni0.33Co0.33O2 (identified commonly as 333 compound). The 333 compound is now popular due to its comparable performance with LiCoO2, lower price, enhanced stability, and more environmentally friendly characteristics. In addition, Li1.2Mn0.54Ni0.13Co0.13O2 (HENMC) is still on the stage of testing and it attracts wide attention due to its higher rechargeable capacity and thermal stability. However, there are still challenges confronted: cycle stability and low rate capability. In order to verify all the roles played by different elements shown in NMC materials and explore the corresponding performance with different formula units, compositional analysis is needed. ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) can provide bulk compositional information and has been used in recent work, giving a general idea of the composition of NMC materials. However, compositional inhomogeneity analysis has usually been neglected in these studies. Therefore, the objective of this work was to explore this variation in composition locally with higher spatial resolution, at the NMC particle level. This work was carried out through the use of scanning electron microscopy – energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). Furthermore, nano-scale quantitative analysis was done with transmission electron microscopy – energy dispersive spectroscopy (TEM-EDS). Moreover, an optimal approach and procedure of compositional analysis by using EDS and AES was explored with proper standards and operation conditions to provide consistent and stable results. The optimal quantification method was applied to investigate the compositions of 333 compound before and after ball milling and HENMC specimen before and after cycling. The results support the structural changes and in turn the electrochemical performance of the battery material. In the 333 compound, the electrochemical performance of the battery was deteriorated due to ball milling, during which Zr was introduced and particles were more compact. In HENMC, during cycling, the Mn distribution was homogeneous at the beginning, then inhomogeneous and homogeneous again, supporting the hypothesis of the transformation of phases: formation of spinel phase and potential SEI layer. In-depth structural analysis of different NMC materials has been reported previously by other groups. However, the structural effects due to cycling, within particles still needs investigation. Therefore, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to investigate the bulk material crystalline structure. Local nano-scale level structural variations amongst different isolated primary particles were investigated by the electron diffraction pattern based on TEM. The 333 compound and HENMC cycling was examined before and after cycling. After cycling, in the 333 compound, the O1 phase domains with P-3m1 space group appear inside the O3 phase with R-3m lattice. With more cycling, more domains appear. For HENMC, the original pristine samples exhibit the rhombohedral and monoclinic phases. After cycling, more and more spinel phase appear. Finally, after 100 cycles, we observe evidence of the potential solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation. In all, all the results above support the phase changes of 333 compound and HENMC. More investigations are needed to understand the degradation process of both compounds. / Thesis / Master of Materials Science and Engineering (MMatSE)

Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) are crucial for modern electronics and electric vehicles (EV). However,their electrochemical performance is facing challenges at low temperatures (e.g ≤ 0 °C) due to reducedLi+ kinetics and increased charge-transfer resistance. Given the growing dependence on LIBs for bothelectronics and EVs, especially in cold environments, it is imperative to address the low-temperaturelimitations. Thus, improving the low-temperature performance of LIBs is essential for the broaderadoption and further advancement of LIBs. To address these challenges, this thesis demonstrates thatsignificant improvement of electrochemical performance at low temperatures can be achieved by in-corporating Lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB) as an additive into the baseline electrolyte forthe Li(Ni0.8Mn0.1Co0.1)O2(NMC811)∥Li cell.At a low temperature of -20 °C, the NMC811∥Li cell with the electrolyte containing 4 wt% LiDFOBexhibited an impressive discharge capacity of 125 mAh/g at 0.1C (1C = 2.0 mAh cm−2), representingabout 61.6% of the capacity delivered at 20 °C. In contrast, the cell with the baseline electrolyte de-livered negligible discharge capacity under the same conditions. This result emphasizes the functionsof LiDFOB as an electrolyte additive in enhancing the low-temperature performance of NMC811∥Licells. This work reveals the kinetics bottleneck of Li+ transport during charge/discharge processes atlow temperatures can be mitigated by tuning cathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) through introducingadditive into the baseline electrolyte.To substantiate these findings, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) was employed to re-veal the significant decrease of interface resistance resulting from the addition of LiDFOB into thebase electrolyte. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) further confirmed the benefits of LiDFOB,indicating that a B-rich, more conductive and thinner CEI formed on the NMC811 cathode induced byLiDFOB. The results indicate that the inclusion of LiDFOB in the baseline electrolyte is advantageousin tuning CEI at the cathode for reducing charge-transfer resistance and enhancing electrochemicalperformance.In conclusion, the tuned CEI induced by LiDFOB additive plays an important role in improving thelow-temperature performance of the NMC811∥Li cells. This improvement in the capacity delivery at-20 °C can be attributed to the formation of a highly conductive and uniform and thinner CEI layer,which in turn facilitates reduced charge-transfer resistance at low temperatures. This work sheds newlight on the electrolyte design with additives to develop high-performance LIBs operating at extremeconditions.2

No description available.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur la réalisation d’une batterie redox-flow fonctionnant grâce à la circulation de suspensions de matériaux d’insertion du lithium afin d’accroitre leur densité d’énergie. Le recours à des cellules microfluidiques permet de s’affranchir des limitations causées par les membranes échangeuses d’ions. Il s’articule dans un premier temps sur la synthèse contrôlée par voie hydrothermale de nanoparticules de LiCoO2 et leur caractérisation en suspension aqueuses. Cette étape permet de déterminer à la fois les propriétés électrochimiques des suspensions, leur état d’agrégation ainsi que leur comportement rhéologique en vue d’une utilisation redox-flow. Le transfert électronique entre une particule en suspension et les électrodes de la cellule est un aspect fondamental de ce type de batteries. Ce transfert est étudié grâce la technique de collision électrochimique dans laquelle la réponse de chaque agrégat est détecté individuellement par une ultramicroélectrode ce qui permet d’établir de nombreuses propriétés physique-chimiques de ces suspensions. Ce travail propose ensuite de s’affranchir de l’utilisation des membranes et de leurs limitations par le recours aux techniques de la microfluidique. La formation d’un écoulement co-laminaire en microcanal permet d’obtenir une cellule redox-flow opérationnelle. La conception et le fonctionnement de ces cellules est étudié en vue de la mise en circulation de suspensions de nanoparticules dans ce type de systèmes. / The aim of this work is to make a redox-flow battery that runs on lithium insertion material suspensions in order to increase the energy density of such systems. The use of microfluidic technics allows to solve the issues and limitations of ion exchange membrane by removing them. In the first part controlled size LiCoO2 nanoparticles are synthesized by hydrothermal route and dispersed into suspensions. The aggregation state of these suspensions are investigated using diffusion light scattering and transmission electronic cryoscopy. Rheological properties were also characterized for redox-flow use. The electronic transfer between a particle in suspension and the flow cell electrodes is crucial for their performances. This transfer is studied in the second part using the single event collision technic which consist of isolating individual aggregate electrochemical response at the surface of an ultramicroelectrode. This approach allows an extensive investigation of suspensions aggregates size, mobility and insertion reaction kinetic. Finally this works propose to replace the conventional ion exchange membrane by the mean of microfluidic technics. In co-laminar condition the fluid interface acts as a separation membrane to create a membrane-less redox-flow battery. The last part focuses on the fabrication of microfluidic cells and the behavior of suspensions in micro-channels.

La société fait face à des défis tels que le réchauffement climatique et la diminution des ressources. Ils sont intimement liés à l’énergie et à son stockage, dont les batteries Li-ion sont à ce jour la technologie la plus utilisée. L’amélioration de la densité d’énergie et la sécurité, ainsi que la réduction des éléments toxiques, rares et coûteux sont recherchées. Durant cette étude, les électrodes positives basées sur des matériaux polyanioniques silicates sont considérées pour répondre à ces demandes. Deux composés sont particulièrement étudiés, Li2MnSiO4, dont la capacité spécifique est supérieure à 300mAh.g-1 et LiMnSiO4, de structure olivine, encore jamais répertorié, dont la capacité (174mAh.g-1) et le potentiel (>3.7V) théoriques sont prometteurs.Dans un premier volet, un nanomatériau Li2MnSiO4/C est synthétisé par voie sol-gel. Ses propriétés électrochimiques et structurales sont étudiées. Les différents phénomènes de dégradation observés sont discutés par la suite. Une stratégie de dopage est proposée pour limiter la perte de capacité en cyclage par stabilisation de la structure via le composé Li2-xMn1+xAlxSi1-xO4/C. Enfin l’influence du stockage à l’air de Li2MnSiO4/C est mise en évidence et un mécanisme concernant la formation de Li2CO3 est proposé.En seconde partie, une synthèse de LiMnSiO4/C en plusieurs étapes est proposée à partir de l’olivine MgMnSiO4/C, suivie d’une oxydation chimique et d’une lithiation électrochimique. Chaque étape est caractérisée pour déterminer la structure, l’état d’oxydation et le comportement électrochimique du matériau obtenu.Pour conclure cette étude, les deux matériaux optimisés ont été testés suivant les profils d’applications spatiales (satellites LEO et GEO). La meilleure cyclablité de LiMnSiO4/C est confirmée ainsi que sa légitimité en tant qu’alternative prometteuse au matériau conventionnel Li2MnSiO4/C. / The society is currently facing challenges such as global warming and rarefaction of resources. These issues have a factor in common, energy and more specifically its storage, for which lithium-ion batteries are today the state-of-the-art technology. Researchers and industries are focusing on the increase of energy density and safety and the reduction of toxic, costly and rare elements. In this study, positive electrodes based on silicate polyanionic materials are considered to fulfill these requirements. Two materials are studied, Li2MnSiO4 that exhibits appealing large capacity (>300mAh.g-1) and an unreported LiMnSiO4 with olivine structure that would have medium capacity (174 mAh.g-1) but associated with a high voltage (>3.7V).In a first part, a nanocomposite material Li2MnSiO4/C is synthesized by sol-gel route. Its electrochemical and structural properties are studied. The different degradation phenomena are discussed thereafter. Al-doped and Mn-rich Li2-xMn1+xAlxSi1-xO4/C is also proposed to lower the structural collapse during cycling. Finally the impact of its storage in air is assessed and a mechanism is proposed to explain the formation of Li2CO3.In a second part, a multistep synthesis is designed starting from olivine MgMnSiO4/C, followed by chemical oxidation and electrochemical lithiation to obtain LiMnSiO4/C. Each step is characterized to assess the structure, oxidation degree and electrochemical behavior of the final material.Finally, the testing of the two materials for space applications (LEO and GEO satellites profiles) confirms the better cyclability of LiMnSiO4/C and its validity as promising alternative to the conventional unstable Li2MnSiO4 compound

L’objectif du travail décrit dans cette thèse est de développer des batteries Li-ion peu coûteuses, respectueuses de l’environnement, facilement industrialisables et recyclables, tout en utilisant des fibres cellulosiques et un procédé en milieu aqueux. Deux approches ont été adoptées pendant ce travail expérimental. Dans un premier temps, les microfibrilles de cellulose ont été utilisées pour la production d’anodes par un procédé de casting. Puis, une approche papetière a été adoptée. La plupart des travaux expérimentaux se sont focalisés sur l’utilisation de fibres de cellulose pour la production d’électrodes papier (anodes et cathodes) et de séparateurs-papier par procédé de filtration en milieu aqueux pour obtenir des cellules complètes à base de cellulose. Les électrodes obtenues sont homogènes, souples et leurs propriétés électrochimiques comparables à celles d’électrodes de références utilisant un polymère de synthèse comme liant. / This work investigates the production of low cost, low environmental impact, easily up-scalable and recyclable cellulose-based Li-ion batteries. Two main research approaches were explored. At first, microfibrillated cellulose was used for the production of paper-like anodes by means of a water-based casting process.Then, a papermaking approach was adopted and the majority of the experimental work was focused on the use of cellulose fibers for the production of paper-electrodes (i.e. anodes and cathodes) and paper-separators by means of a water-based filtration process.The prepared electrodes are easy to handle and self-standing with good electrochemical characteristics, comparable with that of standard synthetic polymer-bonded electrodes.