Yes / This study aims to provide a thorough evaluation for the changes in the microstructure and evolution of strength of highly reactive clays that were treated with 7 % lime over a period of curing time as a function of the mixing moisture content. Three series of testing were carried out on specimens with 100 %, 85 % and 75 % of bentonite content and prepared with different moisture content of 10, 20, 30 and 40 % above the corresponding optimum moisture content. Specimens of 100 % bentonite were treated with 7 % of lime, compacted to achieve a predetermined dry unit weight and cured at temperatures of 20 OC and 40 OC for up to 28 days whereas the specimens with 85 % and 75 % of bentonite content were prepared by the addition of sand and were cured at 20 oC for up to 7 days. Unconfined Compressive Strength tests and Scanning Electron Microscopy were conducted to observe the strength and the microstructural changes resulting from increasing mixing moisture content. California Bearing Ratio and Resilient Modulus were correspondingly determined based on correlations with the Unconfined Compressive Strength. The failure pattern was also studied to better understand the ultimate behaviour of lime stabilised clays. The results revealed that the strength of treated bentonite increased with the increase in the moisture content up to 30 % above the corresponding optimum moisture content and with increasing the curing time and temperature. Nevertheless, substituting bentonite with sand on the specimen resulted in a significant reduction on the attained strength. Furthermore, the results of California Bearing Ratio and Resilient Modulus showed that values for both parameters are significantly enhanced with lime treatment. The microstructural analysis provided visual evidence to the improved strength in which the pozzolanic reaction was found to be significantly affected by the amount of moisture in the mixture. The results suggested that compacting lime treated expansive clays with moisture content moderately higher than the optimum moisture content would result in a significant enhancement to the attained strength over the period of curing.

This diploma thesis deals with the study of the influence of cellulose ethers on the properties of hydraulic lime mortars. The availability and price of cellulose ethers in the industrial market is very favorable, but we can´t meet with studies using cellulose ethers in building materials, where lime is used as a binder. Cellulose ethers are commonly used as thickening agents in cement-based materials. The purpose of this diploma thesis is to review if cellulose ethers are appropriate for use in hydraulic lime mortars, either as water retention agents that contribute by water retention to better hydration of hydraulic binder components or to affect the properties of mortar in the fresh state. The theoretical part is dedicated to cellulose ethers, especially their production and how they influence the properties of building materials. In the practical part, the thesis deals with the influence of the dose of five different types of cellulose ethers on the properties of hydraulic lime. The properties in the fresh state and the physical-mechanical properties of mortars were monitored over time.

The Portland Cement Association commissioned a research project at Brigham Young University to compare selected laboratory durability tests available for assessing stabilized subgrade materials. Improved understanding of these tests is needed to enable more objective selection of durability tests by design engineers and to facilitate more meaningful comparisons of data obtained for different stabilizer treatments using different evaluation procedures. The laboratory research associated with this project involved two subgrade materials, four stabilizers at three concentrations each, and three durability tests in a full-factorial experimental design. The two subgrade soils used were a silty sand and a lean clay, while the four stabilizer types included Class C fly ash, lime-fly ash, lime, and Type I/II portland cement. The three tests used in this comparative study were the freeze-thaw test, the vacuum saturation test, and the tube suction test. On average, to achieve the same 7-day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values, the sand required 4.4 times more Class C fly ash than cement, 3.6 times more lime-fly ash than cement, and 6.0 times more lime than cement. Likewise, the clay required 10 times more Class C fly ash than cement, 7.5 times more lime-fly ash than cement, and 1.8 times more lime than cement. Analyses of the test results indicated that the UCS and retained UCS were higher for specimens tested by vacuum saturation than the corresponding values associated with freeze-thaw cycling. This observation suggests that the freeze-thaw test is more severe than the vacuum saturation test for these particular fine-grained materials. Testing also suggested that specimens with 7-day UCS values below 200 psi will generally not survive freeze-thaw cycling. After both freeze-thaw and vacuum saturation testing, the sand specimens treated with lime-fly ash had significantly higher UCS and retained UCS than specimens treated with Class C fly ash, lime, or cement. Similarly, the clay specimens treated with Class C fly ash or lime-fly ash had significantly higher UCS values than specimens treated with cement or lime; however, clay specimens treated with Class C fly ash and lime-fly ash were not significantly different. None of the four stabilizer types were significantly different from each other with respect to retained UCS after vacuum saturation testing. Dielectric values measured in tube suction testing were lowest for specimens treated with lime-fly ash and cement with respect to the sand and for specimens treated with Class C fly ash and cement with respect to the clay. The lime-fly ash and cement successfully reduced the dielectric value of sand specimens to a "marginal" rating, while no stabilizer reduced the moisture susceptibility of the clay to a satisfactory level. A strong correlation was identified between UCS after the freeze-thaw test and UCS after the vacuum saturation test, while very weak correlations were observed between the final dielectric value after tube suction testing and all other response variables. Differences in variability between test results were determined to be statistically insignificant in an analysis of the CVs associated with data collected in this research. Although the freeze-thaw test utilized in this research was determined to be more severe than the vacuum saturation test for materials similar to those tested in this study, the vacuum saturation test is recommended over both the freeze-thaw and tube suction tests because of the shorter test duration, usability for specimens with 7-day UCS values even below 200 psi, and lack of a need for daily specimen monitoring.

Thesis (MScEng) –Stellenbosch University, 2010 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: More mining houses are turning their attention to the processing of ore mined from the UG2 reef. This is mainly due to the depletion of the Merensky reef or the low availability of ore from the Platreef. With the higher UG2 ore concentration in the process feed, companies experience more problems with the processing of the ore due to its high chrome content. Although there are various possible solutions to the problems experienced in the processing of UG2 ore, very little of thise solutions are actually implemented in the industry. When smelting chrome-bearing ore, the chrome can go to any of three phases: matte phase, spinel phase or glass phase. If it reports to the furnace matte phase it can lead to problems in the down stream processing. When chrome forms part of the spinel phase it forms a solid, refractory-like material which, to an extent, is an unwanted material inside the furnace. Lastly the chrome can report to the glass phase (liquid phase) which is the more desireable phase to which chrome should report to since it will have little or no impact on downstream processing. There were four main objectives for this research project namely to conduct a literature review to understand the problem of chrome in the smelting process, to do an experimental simulation of a matte and slag phase in one crucible, to interpret the experimental results and compare the experimental results to thermodynamic predictions obtained using FactSageTM. From literature the following aspects were found to be important: Silica structures Research has shown that silica incorporates different metal ions into its structures. When the metal ions are incorporated into the silica structures they are seen as part of the glass phase. By incorporating cations such as chromium into the silica structure the structure is able to maintain its neutral electrical charge. Basicity of slag Oxides once melted will either donate or accept oxide ions. The group of oxides that are in excess will determine whether that specific slag is acidic or non acidic. This is important to our study since the basicity can determine the stability of the spinel phase. Partial pressures The partial pressure of the system is important since it forms part of the equilibrium constant calculations - meaning that partial pressures determine the stability of certain species. Currently different arguments exist as to how the sulphur pressure inside a molten bath is maintained. What is important, however, is that for the system in this research project a log oxygen partial pressure of -8 and a log sulphur partial pressure of -3.5 was chosen. These values were based on previous research done on PGM and copper smelting processes. Chrome deportment Previous research on chrome deportment shows a relationship between temperature and the amount of chromium dissolving into the glass phase as well as an increased chromium(II)oxide solubility (when compared to chromium(III)oxide) in a silicate melt. Regarding slag chemistry and chrome deportment very little work has been published for the system found in the PGM industry but it is mentioned that by adjusting certain slag additives (alumina, lime and silica) the chrome deportment can be manipulated. The scope of this project was to investigate the effect of chromium, lime and silica on chrome deportment. More specifically, the effect of lime. The reason being that lime was originally added as 10%wt of the feed stream in the processing of Merensky ore to act as a fluxing agent. With the new furnace design and higher power densities the slag are maintained at 200oC to 350oC higher than when Merensky ore was smelted. With these higher slag temperatures fluxing agents will play a smaller role meaning that lime additions become less important. Literature studies also showed that additional lime in a slag system can stabilize the spinel structure (which is an unwanted phase). Removing lime would be advantageous out of a chrome presepective as well as an economic point of view. The research was conducted in three sections namely the determination of the time required for this particular system to reach equilibrium, the investigation of different additives on chrome deportment using a controlled atmosphere and synthetic slags and, lastly, a comparison of the experimental results obtained to thermodynamic predictions. For the equilibration studies reaction time periods of 4,7,11 and 16 hours were used. From the results it was found that the alumina crucible dissolved into the glass phase continually. This indicated that equilibrium was not reached. However, a reaction time, rather than an equilibrium time, was chosen where the species and phases had enough time to react. This was based on literature, on observations of species diffusing between the matte and slag phase as well as on two-point analysis (diffusion gradients). A reaction time of nine hours was chosen With the reaction time fixed, the effect of different slag additives on chrome deportment was investigated. For the addition of chrome it was seen that an 1.5%wt increase in the starting material increased the chrome content of the slag phase by 0.025%wt. For the same increase in chromium in the starting materials the chrome content of the spinel phase increased by 2.1% indicating that chromium has a tendency to report to the spinel phase. The increase in chromium had a minor effect on the chrome content of the matte phase, however, since the chrome content only increased from 0.025%wt to 0.028%wt. Plotting the results showed that increasing the lime in the starting material decreases the chromium content in the glass phase. For the 39%wt silica system the chromium content in the glass phase decreased from 0.75%wt to 0.46%wt for an increase in the lime content from 1.7%wt to 7.3%wt. The same trend was seen for the 33%wt silica system. For the spinel phase an increase of 1.27%wt was seen when the lime content of the starting materials was increased from 1.7%wt to 10.1%wt for a 33%wt silica system. The same increase in lime increased the chrome content of the matte phase from 0.03%wt to 0.06%wt for a 33%wt silica system. Silica also proved to affect chrome deportment. Increasing the silica content of the starting materials from 25%wt to 39%wt increased the amount of chromium in the glass phase from 0%wt to 0.46%wt for a 10%wt lime system. The same effect is seen for a lower lime content except that more chromium were incorporated into the silica structure. A silica increase from 32.4%wt to 39%wt resulted in a chromium decrease from 5.2%wt to 0% in the spinel phase for a 10%wt lime system. The same trend was seen for the 1.5%wt lime system. An increase in the silica levels lead to an increase in the chrome level of the matte phase. When silica is increased from 32%wt to 39%wt the chrome content of the matte phase increased from 0.06%wt to 0.07%wt. The last part of the research project entailed the comparison of the trends observed with the experimental results to trends obtained from thermodynamic predictions. FactSageTM is a program that uses model equations to predict the Gibbs free energies for different phases. The program is therefore also able to predict the amount of different phases present at equilibrium. This is called thermodynamic ”optimization”. In section 6 trends that were observed from FactSageTM results are compared to the trends found in the experimental results. It is important to note that it is only trends that are evaluated and not actual values since FactSageTM calculations are for a system that is at equilibrium and (as explained above) this system is not at complete equilibrium. The comparison however was good. Several trends found in the experimental results were confirmed by the results from FactSageTM. These included the relationships of chromium fed versus chromium spinel, lime fed versus chromium spinel, lime fed versus chromium in glass, silica fed versus chromium in glass, silica fed versus chromium in spinel and silica fed versus chromium in matte. To conclude, slag additions can be used to manipulate chrome deportment to an extent. Secondly, FactSageTM can be used for thermodynamic predictions but a proper understanding as well as some form of validation of the specific system investigated is still needed. Due to time constraints and the difficulty of experimentally simulating this multi-phase system in the lab, only a few parameters were investigated. In order to obtain a more complete understanding of the system the effect of partial pressures and temperature should also be investigated.

Taikant tiksliojo ūkininkavimo sistemą atliekami dirvos, augalų būklės, tręšimo poreikio ir derlingumo matavimai. Naudojantis gautais duomenimis, darbo metu, koreguojami žemės ūkio mašinų technologiniai parametrai. Tokiu būdu optimizuojamos trąšų, kalkių, pesticidų, degalų ir laiko sąnaudos auginant ne tik žemės ūkio augalus maistui bei pašarams, bet ir energetinius augalus – biomasei. Eksperimentiniai tyrimai atlikti mobiliu Veris MSP įrenginiu su Soil pH Manager sistema. Įvertinus sudarytų dirvožemio pH žemėlapių tikslumą, galima teigti, kad įrenginio Veris MSP racionalus darbinis greitis yra 9 km/h. Greitį padidinus, įrenginys matavimo reikšmes fiksuoja didesniais tarpais, todėl lieka neišskirtos mažą plotą užimančios skirtingo pH lauko zonos. Važiuojant įrenginiu 3 km/h greičiu, įrenginio našumas siekė 6,50,5 ha/h, o 12 km/h greičiu – 26,52,2 ha/h. Atliktų dirvožemio rūgštumo tyrimų patikimumą įrodo gautas, dirvožemio pH nustatyto įrenginiu Veris MSP bei nustatyto laboratorijoje tiesinis tarpusavio ryšys (R2 = 0,81). Kalkių normą parinkus, pagal įrenginio duomenis sudarytus kalkinimo žemėlapius, sutaupoma apie 40% kalkių, lyginant su kalkinimu pagal žemėlapius, sudarytus laboratorijoje nustatytų pH reikšmių pagrindu. Kalkinant pagal laboratorijos duomenų vidurkį (vienoda 500 kg/ha norma), atskiri lauko plotai būtų nepakankamai pakalkinti arba perkalkinti. / Applying the system of precision agriculture, soil, plant condition, fertilisation demand, and fertility measures are taken. Using the data obtained, technological parameters of agricultural machines are adjusted in a course of work. In such a way the consumption of fertilisers, lime, pesticides, fuel, and time are optimised growing not only agricultural plants for food and feed, but also raising the materials for biomass. Experimental studies were carried out using a mobile unit Veris MSP with Soil pH Manager System. After the assessment of accuracy of the pH maps formed, it can be stated that the reasonable working speed of the unit Veris MSP is 9 km/h. Increasing the speed, the unit records the measurement values in greater spaces, thus leaving small areas of field with different pH values unmarked. Moving the unit at the speed of 3 km/h, the unit reached work efficiency of 6.5±0.5 ha/h and at 12 km/h – 26.5±2.2 ha/h. The reliability of the soil acidity research conducted is proved by the linear correlation of soil pH identified using the Veris MSP and the soil pH identified in the laboratory (R2 = 0.81). Selecting the lime rates according to the maps created using the data from the unit lime savings are about 40%, compared to the liming based on the maps created on pH values determined in the laboratory. When liming is done according to the average of laboratory data (equal to 500 kg/ha rate), some field areas are under-limed or over-limed.

Métodos de produção eficientes que economizam tempo e energia são sempre exigidos e novos processos de sinterização de baixo custo têm sido desenvolvidos para materiais cerâmicos e implementados por empresas e pesquisadores em todo o mundo. Com este objetivo, uma nova abordagem conhecida como Flash Sintering está atraindo grande interesse. Esta nova técnica de sinterização envolve a aplicação de campo elétrico através de uma amostra durante o aquecimento, gerando assim aceleração abrupta da cinética de densificação, diminuindo o tempo de sinterização de horas para segundos e diminuindo o aquecimento do forno em até centenas de graus Celsius. Frequentemente descritas para cerâmicas policristalinas e compósitos de cerâmica e vidro, a sinterização auxiliada por campo elétrico com apenas vidro não foi encontrado na literatura. A sinterização assistida por campo elétrico foi controlada com sucesso, sem que ocorresse o escoamento da amostra, obtendo uma elevada densidade relativa do vidro comercial. Um vidro de janela soda-cal-sílica não estequiométrica foi usado na pesquisa devido à sua importância comercial, por ser um material de partida de baixo custo, por apresentar condução iônica e haver na literatura dados de propriedades físicas e de cinética de sinterização convencional. O campo elétrico também influencia fortemente a cinética de sinterização do vidro soda-cal-sílica. Os resultados experimentais foram comparados com cálculos analíticos realizados a partir do modelo de Clusters não-isotérmico de sinterização de vidro por fluxo viscoso com cristalização concorrente. O aumento de temperatura nos compactos de pó de vidro durante o aquecimento do forno e aplicação de campo elétrico foi estimado usando um modelo de radiação de corpo negro. Preliminarmente, o aumento da temperatura devido ao efeito Joule pode explicar a diminuição da temperatura de amolecimento em comparação com a temperatura do forno e a sinterização rápida do vidro estudado. / Efficient production methods saving time and energy are always demanded and novel reduced-cost sintering processes have being developed for ceramic materials and implemented by companies and researchers of all over the world. With this aim, a new sintering approach generally known as flash sintering is attracting great interest. This new sintering technique involves the application of electric field through a sample while heating, thereby generating abrupt acceleration of the densification kinetics, decreasing the sintering time from hours to seconds and decreasing the oven heating in up to hundreds of degrees Celsius. Well described for polycrystalline ceramics and ceramic-and-glass composites, the sintering of pure glass aided by electric field is still lacking in the literature. The sintering assisted by electric field, was successfully controlled, without sample flow, achieved a high relative density of a commercial glass. A non-stoichiometric soda-lime-silica window glass was used due to its commercial importance, low cost starting material, ionic conduction, and literature on physical properties and conventional sintering kinetics. Electric field was observed to also strongly influence window glass sintering kinetics. The experimental results were compared with analytical calculations obtained from the non-isothermal Clusters model of glass sintering by viscous flow with concurrent crystallization. The temperature increase in the glass powder compacts during oven heating and electric field application was estimated by using a black-body radiation model. Preliminary, the temperature increase due to Joule effect can explain the softening temperature decrease compared with the oven temperature, and the fast sintering of the studied glass.

As distribuidoras de calcário convencionais existentes no mercado são projetadas para distribuir o calcário em doses constantes, sem levar em consideração a variabilidade espacial existente no terreno. A presente pesquisa teve como objetivo, projetar e construir um sistema de aplicação localizada de calcário a taxas variáveis. Este sistema, possibilita a distribuição diferenciada de calcário no solo. Isto é possível porque as coordenadas geográficas da distribuidora de calcário são obtidas através do Sistema de Posicionamento Global Diferencial - ("Differential Global Positioning System" - DGPS) e, essas coordenadas, juntamente com as informações de velocidade da máquina e um mapa de prescrição da quantidade de calcário para cada ponto da área, são transferidas para um microcomputador que regula automaticamente a máquina, para aplicar a quantidade adequada de calcário que o terreno deve receber. A distribuição deste insumo no solo foi regulada por um dispositivo dosador, controlado por um motor de passo. Este recebe os impulsos elétricos provenientes de uma interface de potência, controlada pelo microcomputador. A confirmação do posicionamento do dispositivo dosador foi feita através de um sensor potenciométrico. Utilizou-se a linguagem de programação C++ para confeccionar o programa de controle do sistema, o qual foi submetido a ensaios para avaliar sua acurácia. No ensaio para determinação do tempo de resposta pode-se observar que transições de maior dosagem para menor, o tempo de resposta foi menor do que para transições de menor dosagem para maior. Nos ensaios de verificação da quantidade de calcário efetivamente aplicada no solo, o erro observado entre quantidade desejada e a realmente aplicada não ultrapassou 3%. Através dos resultados obtidos nos ensaios, pode-se concluir que o sistema está funcionando de acordo com o proposto. / Most of the conventional lime spreaders available in the Brazilian market distribute lime at fixed rates without considering the spatial variability feature of the field. The purpose of this study was to design and build a variable rate lime application system. The developed system calculates the geographic coordinates of the lime spreader position obtained by a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS). These coordinates, information on the machine speed and a prescription map of the quantity of lime needed for each area within the field are transferred to a computer. The program in the computer automatically adjusts the position of the machine metering device using a step motor driven by electric impulses generated by an electronic interface. The metering device position was checked through potentiometric sensors. The C++ programming language was used to write the control program for the system, which was tested to evaluate its accuracy. The tests demonstrated a shorter response time when changing from larger to smaller application rates than when changing from smaller to larger rates. In the test to verify the amount of lime effectively applied on the soil, the observed error between the desired amount and the real amount applied did not exceed 3%. The results of the tests indicate that the system operates according to the established goals.

A necessidade de desenvolver técnicas mais rápidas e menos onerosas no estudo dos solos, não apenas no setor agrícola como ambiental, criou espaço para o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias, entre elas o sensoriamento remoto, no entanto, faz-se necessário entender o impacto do manejo nas assinaturas espectrais dos objetos. Neste sentido, este trabalho teve por objetivos: (i) avaliar o grau de alteração da assinatura espectral de diferentes classes de solos em resposta a presença de coberturas vegetais sobre os mesmos; (ii) avaliar o grau de alteração da assinatura espectral de diferentes classes de solo em resposta a aplicação de fertilizantes e corretivos (iii) Comparar os resultados obtidos em laboratório e comparar com dados orbitais multi e hiperespectrais. Para isso, foram coletadas amostrados as seguintes classes de solo: Latossolos vermelhos de textura muito argilosa, argilosa e média arenosa, e Latossolo vermelho ferrico de textura argilosa. Eles foram secos em estufa (65 oC) por 48 horas, moídos e peneirados em malha 2 mm. As coberturas utilizadas no experimento foram: folhas verdes de cana-deaçúcar, palha, cinza, folhas verdes e palha, palha e cinza, calcários (dolomítico e calcítico), gesso, yoorim e torta de filtro. Para cada combinação de solo e cobertura foram elaborados 10 tratamentos com diferentes dosagens, e aplicados sobre os solos com uma balança de precisão. Os tratamentos foram encaminhados para leituras com um sensor de laboratório e em seguida fotografados, para posterior quantificação das proporções de solo e cobertura presentes nos tratamentos. As curvas espectrais foram analisadas visualmente por parâmetros como forma, intensidade de reflectância e inclinação, análise de remoção do espectro contínuo, derivada e por fim análise de agrupamento por método de cluster. Os dados de espectro foram posteriormente utilizados para a simulação das bandas dos satélites LandSat Tm 5, Aster, Spot 5 e Hyperium, e os resultados comparados com o obtido em laboratório. Os resultados obtidos nos tratamentos com coberturas vegetais, de forma geral, mostraram que as doses mínimas resultaram em algum grau de alteração da assinatura espectral dos solos, em pelo menos um dos três parâmetros estudados. Entretanto, quando avaliados pela análise de agrupamento, observam-se que as mudanças não foram suficientes para que estatisticamente fossem separados os solos dos demais tratamentos contendo cobertura vegetal. A semelhança dos tratamentos contendo a dosagem mínima dos adubos e corretivos com o padrão espectral dos solos variaram em função das características intrínsecas a cada um dos solos e das doses recomendadas a cada um deles. As informações quando simuladas para os sensores orbitais multiespectrais mascararam a grande maioria das feições de absorção relacionadas aos solos e coberturas, com exceção dos tratamentos relacionados às folhas verdes. / The need to develop techniques faster and less costly in the study of soils, not only in agriculture and environmental issues, created space for the development of new technologies, including remote sensing, however, it is necessary to understand the impact of management the spectral signatures of objects. Thus, this study aimed to: (i) assess the degree of change in the spectral signature of different soil classes in response to the presence of vegetation on them, (ii) assess the degree of change in the spectral signature of different classes soil in response to application of fertilizers and lime (iii) to compare the results obtained in the laboratory and compared with multi-and hyperspectral satellite data. For this, samples were collected the following types of soil: red Oxisols of clayey, sandy clay and medium, and red ferric Oxisol clay texture. They were dried in an oven (65 ° C) for 48 hours, ground and sieved at 2 mm mesh. The covers used in the experiment were: leaves of sugar cane, straw, gray green leaves and straw, and gray, limestone (calcite and dolomite), gypsum, yourim and filter cake. For each combination of soil and cover 10 treatments were prepared with different dosages, and applied on soils with a precision balance. The treatments were sent to a sensor readings with laboratory and then photographed for later measurement of the proportion of soil and cover these treatments. The spectral curves were analyzed visually by parameters such as shape, intensity of reflectance and slope, analysis of removal of a continuous spectrum, and finally derived by cluster analysis method of cluster. The spectral data were subsequently used for the simulation of the bands of Landsat TM 5, Aster, Spot 5 and Hyperium, and the results compared with those obtained in the laboratory. The results obtained in the treatments with cover crops, in general, showed that the minimum doses resulted in some degree of change in the spectral signature of soils, in at least one of the three parameters. However, when evaluated by cluster analysis, observed that the changes were not sufficient to be statistically separated from the other treatments the soils containing vegetation. The similarity of the treatments containing the minimum dosage of fertilizer and lime with the spectral pattern of the soils varied depending on the characteristics intrinsic to each of the soils and the recommended dose for each of them. Information when simulated for orbital multispectral sensors masked the great majority of absorption features related to soil and toppings, except for treatments related to leafy greens.

Uma alternativa de manejo das doenças de citros causadas por Phytophthora spp. é o uso de matéria orgânica. Com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos da incorporação de lodo de esgoto ao solo na indução de supressividade a Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan (1896) em plântulas de limão cravo (Citrus lemonia (L.) Osbeck), foram realizados diversos experimentos em laboratório, casa de vegetação e campo. O aumento nas doses de lodo de esgoto, nos experimentos em laboratório, em casa de vegetação e em campo, resultou na redução do pH e aumento da condutividade elétrica do solo; aumento da atividade microbiana do solo (avaliada pela hidrólise de diacetato de fluoresceina - FDA e pela respiração microbiana); além de uma redução na recuperação de P. nicotianae, tanto do substrato e do solo como das raízes de plântulas e mudas. Em alguns experimentos, a recuperação do patógeno correlacionou-se significativa e negativamente com a atividade microbiana do solo(FDA) e com a condutividade elétrica. Um melhor desenvolvimento de plântulas e mudas foi observado com a incorporação de lodo até 20%. Esses resultados indicam um efeito supressivo do lodo de esgoto a P. nicotianae, nas condições avaliadas, explicado por fatores químicos e biológicos. Dentre os fatores químicos destacam-se o aumento da condutividade elétrica e a inibição do crescimento das colônias do patógeno em meio de cultura com extratos ácidos de lodo. Os fatores biológicos envolveram o aumento da atividade microbiana do solo e a presença de fungos (Aspergillus sp. e Trichoderma sp.) e actinomicetos antagonistas a P. nicotianae. / Soil organic matter amendments may provide an alternative for the management of citrus soil diseases caused by Phytophthora spp. The effects of incorporating residential sewage sludge into the soil in order to induce suppressiviness to Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan (1896) in seedlings and plantlets of rangpuor lime (Citrus limonia (L.) Osbeck) were evaluated. For this, several experiments under laboratory, greenhouse and field conditions were conducted. In almost all experiments, while sewage sludge doses enlarged, soil pH values decreased and soil electrical conductivity increased; soil microbial activity (evaluated by the fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis - FDA and microbial respiration) increased, and P. nicotianae recovery from soil and roots tended to decreased. In some experiments, significantly and negative correlations were observed between P. nicotianae recuperation and microbial activity (FDA), and between P. nicotianae recuperation and soil electrical conductivity. Seedlings and plantlets development improved at a maximum of 20% v/v sewage sludge soil incorporation. These results suggest a sewage sludge suppressive effect on P. nicotianae, explained by chemical and biological factors, under the experimental conditions of the tests performed. Among chemical factors, the increase of the soil electrical conductivity and colony growth inhibition of P. nicotianae on culture media amended with an acid sewage sludge extract, were indicated. The biological factors involved in suppressiviness were the increase of soil microbial activity and the presence of fungi (Aspergillus sp. and Trichoderma sp.) and actinomyces antagonistic to P. nicotianae.

Embora o Brasil ocupe a primeira posição no ranking mundial de produção de lima ácida Tahiti, somente 6,6% desta produção é exportada. Tal aspecto deve-se, parcialmente, às perdas provocadas por danos pós-colheita, as quais estão distribuídas ao longo da cadeia de comercialização da fruta, desde a colheita até o consumidor final. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar os efeitos dos métodos de colheita e das etapas de beneficiamento pós-colheita de lima ácida Tahiti na sua qualidade e conservação. Para atingir este objetivo, foram realizados três experimentos. No primeiro, avaliaram-se os métodos de colheita com a tesoura, por torção, com o cesto e com o gancho, nos períodos de safra e entressafra. No segundo experimento, foram avaliados os mesmos métodos de colheita, para frutas de lima ácida Tahiti destinadas a exportação, as quais após a colheita passaram pelo processo de beneficiamento pós-colheita. No terceiro experimento, avaliou-se o efeito das etapas do beneficiamento pós-colheita na qualidade e conservação da lima ácida Tahiti. Nos três experimentos foram realizadas análises físicas, químicas e sensoriais ao longo do armazenamento a 22ºC±2 e 70±5 de umidade relativa. Nos experimentos envolvendo a avaliação dos métodos de colheita constatou-se que a colheita com o gancho foi a que mais prejudicou os atributos de qualidade da lima ácida Tahiti independentemente de terem sido beneficiadas. Este método causou maior redução da coloração verde da casca das frutas, maior degradação do ácido ascórbico, maior perda de massa, maior incidência de distúrbios fisiológicos e maior alteração do sabor do suco quando comparado aos outros métodos. A quantidade de frutos aptos para exportação foi 23% menor para a colheita com o gancho quando comparado com a tesoura. Tais resultados estão diretamente relacionados com a quantidade de injúrias mecânicas causadas nos frutos no método de colheita com gancho. No experimento com as etapas do beneficiamento póscolheita observou-se que as limas ácidas Tahiti que passaram pelo beneficiamento completo apresentaram maior redução do conteúdo de ácido ascórbico, maior perda de massa, maior incidência de oleocelose, menor quantidade de frutos comercializáveis e maior alteração do aroma e sabor do suco quando comparado aos frutos que não passaram por todas as etapas do beneficiamento. Tais resultados podem ser relacionados ao fato do processo de beneficiamento aplicado nas limas ácidas Tahiti conter etapas consideradas agressivas aos frutos, impedindo que os demais procedimentos tenham resultado eficiente. A avaliação dos distintos métodos de colheita permitiu identificar a colheita com a tesoura como mais eficiente na conservação dos atributos de qualidade da lima ácida Tahiti e também como o método que apresentou maior rendimento de frutas com padrão de qualidade exigido para exportação. O método de colheita com o gancho causa danos físicos aos frutos e prejudica seus atributos de qualidade de forma irreversível. Os procedimentos de beneficiamento pós-colheita das limas ácidas Tahiti têm sua eficiência reduzida quando aplicados em frutos que sofreram danos físicos. / Although Brazil occupies the first position among the worlds largest producers of Tahiti lime, only 6,6% of this production is exported. This situation is partly due to fruit losses caused by postharvest injuries, which are distributed along the fruit supply chain from harvest to the final consumer. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different harvesting methods and postharvest practices of Tahiti limes on their quality and conservation. For this purpose three trials were conducted. In the first trial, different harvesting methods were evaluated on fruit picked with scissors, by twisting, with basket and with hook, both during the main harvest as well as on the offseason periods. In the second trial, the same harvesting methods were assessed on Tahiti limes classified for export on a commercial packing line. In the third trial, different postharvest stages were evaluated regarding their effects on fruit quality and storage of Tahiti limes. In all the experiments physical, chemical and sensory analyses were conducted during fruit storage at 22±2 °C and 70±5% relative humidity. For the experiments comparing different harvesting methods, fruit picking with hook was found to cause largest injuries on quality attributes of Tahiti limes, both for sorted and unsorted fruit. This harvest method caused larger degradation of green skin color and ascorbic acid content on fruits, with larger mass loss, increased incidence of physiological disorders and major alterations of juice flavor, when compared to other harvest methods. The amount of fruit classified for export was 23% lower when the harvest was performed with the hook, as compared with scissors-harvesting. These results are directly related to the amount of mechanical injuries caused by fruit harvesting with hook. In the experiment evaluating different postharvest stages it was observed that Tahiti limes that went over all the sorting and grading steps showed larger reduction in ascorbic acid content, with larger mass loss and incidence of oleocelosis, fewer marketable fruit percentage and stronger alterations on juice smell and flavor, when compared to fruits that did not undergo through all the classification steps. These results may be related with the fact that sorting and grading processes currently applied to Tahiti limes in the packing house are considered to be aggressive to fruits, and they prevent from achieving positive effects with other postharvest practices. Scissors-picking of fruits was more efficient for conserving quality attributes of Tahiti limes, and this was also the method yielding higher percentage of fruit meeting the quality standards required for export. Fruit harvesting using the hook caused physical injuries that irreversibly affected fruit quality. Postharvest practices of Tahiti limes had reduced efficiency when applied onto fruits exposed to physical damage.