A cultura da cana-de-açúcar está exposta a diversos patógenos, entre eles, o fungo Sporisorium scitamineum, agente causal do carvão, que causa perdas significativas na produção e na qualidade do caldo. O uso de genótipos resistentes é o principal método de controle da doença, o que torna essencial o conhecimento das bases genéticas da resistência, favorecendo a seleção de genótipos superiores. Neste estudo, uma população F1 segregante, derivada do cruzamento entre \'IAC66-6\' e \'TUC71-7\', foi genotipada usando marcadores EST-SSR e TRAP, os quais foram alocados em um mapa prévio, visando identificar marcadores associados a locos quantitativos de resistência a esse patógeno. A incidência de carvão foi avaliada em dois ensaios realizados nos anos de 2009 e 2010, em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado. O principal sintoma do carvão (número de chicotes) foi tomado ao longo dos ensaios e os dados foram utilizados para o cálculo da área sob a curva de progresso da doença (AUDPC), sendo os valores de AUDPC normalizados e analisados por meio de modelos mistos. O mapeamento de locos quantitativos (QTL) seguiu a abordagem de mapeamento por intervalo composto (CIM). O mapa aqui construído contém 721 marcadores, compilando EST-SSRs, TRAPs, além de AFLPs e marcadores direcionados ao retrotransposon scIvana_1 já alocados no mapa prévio. Estes foram posicionados em 124 grupos de co-segregação, sendo 65 deles atribuídos em dez grupos de homo(eo)logia, com base em locos EST-SSR em comum. O mapa totaliza 6.223,0 cM e tem uma densidade média de um marcador a cada 8,6 cM. O uso da metodologia CIM permitiu detectar oito locos quantitativos associados à resistência de S. scitamineum, sendo quatro deles identificados na primeira avaliação, dois novos locos na segunda avaliação e dois considerando-se o comportamento médio dos genótipos nos dois anos de avaliação. Observou-se a predominância de alelos com efeitos aditivos de resistência, comparativamente aos efeitos de dominância, sendo seis deles relacionados à diminuição da suscetibilidade e quatro com o aumento. Dentre os QTL, cinco segregaram na proporção 1:1, dois 3:1 e um na proporção de 1:2:1. Os QTLs foram capazes de explicar individualmente de 3,4% a 5,7% da variação fenotípica. O QTL que explicou a maior porcentagem da variação, detectado na primeira avaliação (5,7%), foi posicionado a 5,0 cM de outro QTL considerando-se o comportamento médio dos genótipos, sugerindo que estes QTLs localizam-se na mesma região genômica. Interessantemente, um dos QTLs está posicionado em um intervalo que contém uma marca TRAP e outra ancorada no retrotransposon scIvana. Espera-se que esses resultados contribuam para estudos futuros sobre genes candidatos envolvidos na resistência, o papel dos retrotransposons na resposta da planta a patógenos, bem como possam dar subsídios a programas de seleção assistida por marcadores. / The sugarcane is exposed to several pathogens, including the fungus Sporisorium scitamineum, the smut disease´s causal agent, which causes significant losses in yield and juice quality. The use of resistant genotypes is the main strategy to control the disease, therefore it is essential the knowledge on the genetic basis of resistance for selecting superior genotypes. In this study, a F1 segregating population derived from a cross between \'IAC66-6\' and \'TUC71-7\' were genotyped using EST-SSR and TRAP markers that were placed on a prior map aiming at to identify markers associated to the smut resistance genes. The incidence of smut was evaluated in two trials performed in 2009 and 2010 in a completely randomized design. The main smut symptom (number of whips) was recorded in both trials, and data were used to calculate the area under the disease-progression curve (AUDPC). The values were normalized and analyzed using mixed models. The mapping of quantitative loci (QTL) followed the composite interval mapping (CIM) method. The map here in constructed contains 721 single dose markers compiling EST-SSRs, TRAPs as well as AFLPs and markers anchored in the retrotransposon scIvana_1, both previously allocated. Markers were positioned on 124 co-segregation groups, and 65 of them were assigned to ten groups of homo(eo)logy, based on common EST-SSR loci. The map totalized 6223.0 cM with a marker density of one marker every 8.6 cM. The use of CIM methodology allowed the detection of eight loci associated with quantitative resistance to S. scitamineum, four being identified in the first trial, two new QTLs in the second trial, and two considering the average genotype behavior in both years of evaluation. There was predominance of additive effects in comparison to the dominance effects, six of them related to decreased susceptibility and four related to increased susceptibility. Out of the QTLs, five segregated in a 1:1 ratio, two in a 3:1 ratio, and two in a 1:2:1 ratio. QTLs were able to explain individually 3.4% to 5.7% of the phenotypic variation. The QTL that explained the largest percentage of the variation, detected in the first trial (5.7%) was located at a distance of 5.0 cM from other QTL detected when considering the genotype average behavior, suggesting that these QTLs are positioned in the same genomic region. Interestingly, one QTL was located in an interval that contains a TRAP marker and a scIvana_1-anchored marker. We expect that our results contribute to future studies on disease resistance candidate genes, the role of retrotransposon in plant responses to pathogens, as well as to add marker-assisted selection programs.

Estudar a arquitetura genética de uma dada característica quantitativa significa descrever os fatores genéticos e ambientais que a afetam, bem como o valor dos efeitos genéticos de cada loco e suas interações. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo geral estudar a arquitetura genética de características quantitativas associadas ao desempenho e ao rendimento de carcaça de uma população experimental oriunda do cruzamento entre uma linhagem de postura (CC) e uma de corte (TT) genotipada para marcadores microssatélites que foram associados ao peso vivo aos 42 dias na população recíproca TCTC nos cromossomos 1, 3 e 4. Para tanto, foram propostos três objetivos específicos: 1) caracterizar genotipicamente as duas populações referências (TCTC e CTCT); 2) construir mapas de ligação para a população CTCT; 3) mapear QTLs associados ao desempenho e ao rendimento de carcaça na população CTCT, utilizando o Mapeamento por Intervalo Composto (CIM). Os resultados evidenciaram que as duas linhagens parentais (CC e TT) possibilitaram a criação de gerações recíprocas F1 com elevados valores do conteúdo de informação polimórfica e heterozigosidade observada, resultado do satisfatório número de alelos verificado. Isto implica que as populações recíprocas F2, derivadas de ambas as gerações F1, são apropriadas para mapear QTLs associados ao desempenho e ao rendimento de carcaça. Adicionalmente, os mapas de ligação da população CTCT são similares ao de sua população recíproca TCTC e ao Mapa Consenso da galinha doméstica. A estimação de intervalos de confiança para as distâncias entre locos permitiu melhor entendimento das diferenças obtidas tanto no tamanho dos cromossomos quanto na ordem dos locos. Finalmente, foram observadas vantagens com o uso do CIM nas estimativas de número de QTLs mapeados e em suas posições. As regiões onde os QTLs foram mapeados neste estudo corroboram algumas daquelas da população recíproca TCTC, mas por outro lado sugerem que outras regiões do genoma dos cromossomos 1, 3 e 4 podem controlar tais características. Foram definidas duas regiões ainda não descritas na literatura no cromossomo 4: uma associada ao ganho de peso (MCW0240- LEI0063) e outra ao consumo de ração (LEI0085-MCW0174) 35-41 dias. Os resultados deste estudo podem ser explorados através do mapeamento fino, buscas in silico por genes candidatos por posição e validação em populações comerciais, a fim de implementar a seleção assistida por marcadores em programas de melhoramento genético avícolas. / Understanding the genetic architecture means to describe the genetic and environment factors that affect a quantitative trait, together with the estimation of individual genetic effects and its interactions. The aim of this work was to understand the genetic architecture of quantitative traits associated with performance and carcass yield of a chicken reference population created from crosses between a layer line (CC) and a broiler line (TT) genotyped for microsatellite markers that were associated with body weight at 42 days in its reciprocal cross on chromosomes 1, 3 and 4. Three specific topics were presented: 1) to characterize genotypically two reference populations (TCTC and CTCT); 2) to construct linkage maps in the CTCT population and 3) to map QTL associated with performance and carcass yield in CTCT population, using Composite Interval Mapping (CIM). The results showed that the two parental lines (CC and TT) created reciprocal F1 generations with suitable polymorphic information content values and observed heterozygosity, as result of the satisfactory number of alleles. This implies that the reciprocal F2 populations, derived from both F1 generations, are appropriated to map QTL associated with performance and carcass yield. The linkage maps from CTCT population were similar to its reciprocal population and to the Chicken Consensus Linkage Map. Estimating confidence intervals for distances between loci allowed the elucidation of the causes for differences both on chromosome sizes and on order loci. Finally, there were advantages in using CIM, mainly on QTL number and location. The regions where QTLs were mapped in this study not only corroborated some results from TCTC reciprocal population, but also suggested that other genome regions on chromosomes 1, 3 and 4 may control such traits. On chromosome 4 two regions were defined that were not previously described in the literature: one associated with weight gain (MCW0240-LEI0063) and another one with feed intake (LEI0085-MCW0174) at 35- 41 days. The results of this study can be explored through fine mapping, searches in silico for candidate genes and by validation in commercial populations, in order to implement marker assisted selection in poultry breeding programs.

Abstract The study of speciation has been an area of primary interest in evolutionary biology from Darwin to the present day. Understanding the processes that give rise to new species requires knowledge on how reproductive isolation develops between diverging populations. An irreversible and therefore important component of reproductive isolation is intrinsic postzygotic isolation. Postzygotic incompatibilities often manifest themselves through hybrid inviability or sterility, and distort allelic transmission ratios in hybrid progenies. The genetic basis of such incompatibilities has often been found to be negative interactions between two or more loci, also known as Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities. During the last decade some genes involved in this type of incompatibilities have been identified, but especially in plants our knowledge remains scarce. In this thesis I examined whether intrinsic postzygotic isolation had developed between allopatric populations of a perennial, outcrossing plant; Arabidopsis lyrata. The studied populations of A. lyrata were found to be genetically highly differentiated. In F2 progenies of crosses between populations many molecular markers reveal non-Mendelian genotype ratios, that is, show transmission ratio distortion (TRD). By contrast, TRD was found to be nearly absent in progenies of within population crosses. The degree of TRD clearly increased with genetic distance between the crossed populations, and origin for TRD was often in F1 gamete formation, instead of F2 zygotic level. The genetic basis of TRD appeared due to interactions between nuclear loci, and between nuclear and cytoplasmic factors. In addition to transmission ratio distortion, reduced male fertility and cytoplasmic male sterility was found in the F2 hybrids between A. lyrata subspecies petraea and lyrata. Quantitative trait loci for reduced male fertility were polymorphic within populations, and dependent on cytoplasm. Thus, the findings in this thesis underline the role of cytonuclear interactions, and the possibility of development of genic incompatibilities through genomic conflicts due to divergence likely unrelated to local adaptation. / Tiivistelmä Lajiutumistutkimus on ollut yksi evoluutiobiologian suurimmista kiinnostuksen kohteista Darwinin ajoista nykypäivään. Jotta voisimme ymmärtää uusien lajien syntymiseen johtavia prosesseja, on ensin ymmärrettävä, miten lisääntymisisolaatio kehittyy erilaistuvien populaatioiden välille. Lajien välisten risteytysten jälkeläiset ovat usein steriilejä tai elinkyvyttömiä. Tämä perustuu kahden erilaistuneen populaation perimän yhteensopimattomuuteen. Tällaiset sisäsyntyiset hedelmöityksen jälkeiset yhteensopimattomuudet ovat tärkeä osa lisääntymisisolaatiota, sillä ne ovat peruuttamattomia. Ne aiheuttavat vääristymiä genotyyppien lukusuhteissa risteytysjälkeläistöissä. Posttsygoottisen yhteensopimattomuuden taustalla on usein kahden tai useamman geenilokuksen välinen negatiivinen interaktio, jota kutsutaan myös Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller -inkompatibiliteetiksi. Viime vuosikymmenen aikana on tunnistettu muutamia geenejä, jotka ovat mukana negatiivisissa interaktioissa, mutta kasveista tietoa geneettisistä tekijöistä on vielä vähän. Väitöstutkimuksessa selvitettiin onko geneettisiä posttsygoottisia yhteensopimattomuuksia kehittynyt kasvilajin sisällä (Arabidopsis lyrata) allopatristen populaatioiden välille. Tutkitut kasvipopulaatiot olivat geneettisesti hyvin erilaistuneita. Näiden populaatioiden välisten jälkeläistöjen genotyypeissä havaittiin yleisesti paljon mendelistisistä lukusuhteista poikkeavia lukusuhteita. Genotyyppejä tarkasteltiin myös populaation sisäisissä risteytyksissä, joiden jälkeläistöissä periytyminen oli lähes mendelististä. Väitöstutkimuksessa havaittiin, että mitä geneettisesti erilaisemmat populaatiot risteytettiin, sitä suurempi oli ei-mendelistisen periytymisen osuus. Tutkimukset osoittivat lukusuhteiden vääristyvän jo F1-hybridin tuottaessa sukupuolisoluja, eikä niinkään muodostuneissa uusissa F2-tsygooteissa. Taustalla olevien geneettisten yhteensopimattomuuksien havaittiin vaikuttavan tuman geenien välillä, mutta myös tuman ja soluliman geneettisten tekijöiden välillä. Mendelistisistä lukusuhteista poikkeamisen lisäksi tutkimuksessa havaittiin siitepölyn alentunut elinkyky ja solulimaan liittyvä koirassteriliteetti F2-jälkeläistössä A. lyrata alalajien petraea ja lyrata välillä. Lokukset, jotka vaikuttivat siitepölyn alentuneeseen elinkykyyn, olivat polymorfisia populaatioiden sisällä ja vuorovaikutuksessa soluliman geneettisten tekijöiden kanssa. Nämä tutkimustulokset korostavat tuman ja soluliman geenien vuorovaikutuksen tärkeyttä lajien välisten lisääntymisesteiden synnyssä. Ne myös osoittavat, että yhteensopimattomuus voi kehittyä mahdollisesti ilman luonnonvalinnan vaikutusta.

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L'huître plate européenne, espèce endémique des côtes européennes, est classée dans la catégorie des « espèces menacées et/ou en déclin ». En effet, les gisements naturels de cette huître ont été progressivement décimés par la sur-exploitation et par l'émergence successive de maladies parasitaires. Le parasite responsable de la bonamiose a notamment contribué à réduire de façon drastique l'exploitation de cette huître en France, et en Europe. Les mollusques bivalves marins présentent deux caractéristiques qui restreignent de fait le potentiel d'action pour lutter contre les maladies : ils sont cultivés en milieu ouvert, et possèdent un système immunitaire inné dépourvu de la capacité de réponse adaptative. Dans ce contexte, la sélection d'animaux naturellement résistants à la bonamiose est une voie prometteuse pour relancer la culture de l'huître plate européenne. Afin de mieux comprendre le phénomène de résistance à la bonamiose, plusieurs études ont porté sur les mécanismes de réponse de l'huître plate et sur l'identification de régions génomiques potentiellement impliquées dans les mécanismes de résistance à la maladie.Le présent travail de thèse consistait à améliorer la compréhension de la résistance de l'huître plate européenne vis-à-vis de la bonamiose, mais également à mieux caractériser la ressource génétique et la structuration de ses populations naturelles. L'huître plate n'étant pas un organisme modèle, seule une carte génétique préliminaire était disponible chez cette espèce. Il a donc été nécessaire de développer de nouveaux outils moléculaires afin d'optimiser la couverture de son génome. Des marqueurs de type SNP (polymorphisme d'une seule base) ont ainsi été développés par séquençage de produits PCR et par séquençage à haut débit. Afin d'améliorer la compréhension de la résistance à la bonamiose, trois expériences d'infection avec le parasite responsable de cette maladie ont été réalisées et ont permis de caractériser les phénotypes de réponse de l'huître plate à plusieurs échelles d'études.1- À l'échelle inter-familiale, il s'agissait de détecter des régions du génome (QTL) associées aux mécanismes de réponse (survie / mortalité) à la bonamiose chez plusieurs familles d'huîtres. Cette approche a permis d'identifier plusieurs régions génomiques d'intérêt communes entre les familles, et de nouvelles régions d'intérêt qui n'avaient pas encore été détectées.2- À l'échelle intra-familiale, il s'agissait de détecter des régions génomiques associées à la régulation d'activités hémocytaires (QTL) ou à l'expression de gènes (eQTL) préalablement identifiés comme potentiellement impliqués dans la réponse à la bonamiose. Cette approche, nouvelle chez un mollusque bivalve, a notamment permis de mettre en évidence une concordance positionnelle entre les régions génomiques impliquées dans la survie ou la mortalité à la bonamiose et celles impliquées dans la régulation des réponses cellulaires et/ou moléculaires.3- À l'échelle des populations, il s'agissait d'étudier un éventuel différentiel de réponse à la bonamiose chez des huîtres provenant de trois populations naturelles géographiquement et écologiquement distinctes. Cette étude a notamment permis d'identifier une possible adaptation à la parasitose des huîtres provenant de la baie de Quiberon. Afin de mieux caractériser les ressources naturelles de l'huître plate européenne, plusieurs populations couvrant l'ensemble de l'aire de distribution de l'espèce ont également été étudiées. Cette étude a permis de confirmer la forte diversité nucléotidique de l'huître plate, en évaluant pour la première fois la diversité génétique globale des populations naturelles d'un mollusque bivalve marin. Cette étude a également permis d'identifier une structuration génétique des populations, avec coïncidence entre les discontinuités dans la distribution des fréquences alléliques des marqueurs moléculaires sous sélection positive ou divergente et les barrières biogéographiques. / The European flat oyster, an endemic species from European coasts, is classified in the category of “endangered and/or declining species”. Indeed, the natural beds of this oyster, consumed since ancient times, have gradually been decimated by over-exploitation and by successive emergence of parasitic diseases. The parasite that causes the disease called bonamiosis has contributed to drastically reduce the French and European aquacultural production of flat oyster. Marine bivalve molluscs display two specificities that restrict possibilities to fight against diseases: they are grown in an open environment, and possess an innate immune system lacking in adaptive response. In this context, the selection of animals naturally resistant to bonamiosis is a very promising issue to revive the culture of the European flat oyster. To better understand the phenomenon of resistance against bonamiosis, several studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms of response of the flat oyster, and on the identification of genomic regions potentially involved in the mechanisms of disease resistance.In this context, the present work consisted in improving our understanding of the resistance of the European flat oyster against bonamiosis, and in better characterizing the genetic resources and the structuring of its natural populations. Considering that the flat oyster is not a model organism, a preliminary genetic map was available for this species. It was therefore necessary to develop new molecular tools to optimize the coverage of its genome. SNP markers (single nucleotide polymorphism) have been developed by direct sequencing of PCR products and high-throughput sequencing. To improve the understanding of resistance against bonamiosis, three experiments of infection with the parasite have been performed and used to characterize phenotypes of the oyster response at several study levels.1 – At the inter-family level, the objective was to detect genomic regions (QTL) associated with the mechanisms of response (survival/mortality) against bonamiosis in several families of oysters. This approach enabled to identify several genomic regions of interest shared between families, and new ones that had not yet been detected. 2 – At the intra-family level, the objective was to detect genomic regions associated with the regulation of haemocytic activities (QTLs) or genes expression (eQTL) previously identified as potentially involved in the response to bonamiosis. This approach had never been used before on a bivalve mollusc. It has enabled to identify a positional correlation between the genomic regions involved in the survival or mortality to bonamiosis and those involved in the regulation of cellular or molecular responses.3 – At the population level, the experiment aimed at detecting possible differential responses against bonamiosis between oysters from three natural populations geographically and ecologically distinct. This study has enabled to identify a possible adaptation of oysters from the bay of Quiberon to the parasitosis. In order to improve the characterization of the natural resources of the European flat oyster, several populations covering the entire geographic range of the species were also studied. This study confirmed the high nucleotide diversity of the flat oyster, assessing for the first time the overall genetic diversity of natural populations of a marine bivalve mollusc. This study also enabled to identify the genetic structure of populations, with coincidences between geographical discontinuities in allele frequencies of molecular markers under positive or divergent selection and biogeographical barriers.