Today's society is currently developing lithium-ion batteries to eventually replace the use of fossil fuels. High entropy oxides is a new type of material to use as an anode in the lithium-ion battery. These high entropy oxides may consist of a few different transition metals including lithium and oxygen. In this report was (MgCoNiZn)1-xLixO synthesized with a method called Pechini with a molar fraction of x=0.35. This study compares the results from a reference study that has shown the potential of the electrochemical characteristics of (MgCoNiZn)1-xLixO for application as anode in a lithium-ion battery.  The synthesis starts with a heating step to remove all the organics in the composition. The powder consists of several structures and, therefore goes through a calcination step to dissolve all of the intermediate phases into the rock-salt structure. The structure of the powder had a lattice constant of 4,138Å. The powder was made into a slurry containing Carbon black, PVDF and NMP to later get coated by a Dr. Blade. After drying the coating the cell was then assembled with lithium as metal cathode and 1M LiPF6 in 1:1 EC/DMC as electrolyte. After the cell was assembled it, went through electrochemical properties test using a potentiostat and the cell being inside a in a climate chamber at 25°C.  7 cycles were done to plot a cyclic voltammetry graph as well as a discharge-charge test was performed. The cyclic voltammetry and discharge-charge test was run with a voltage range of 0,053 V. The discharge-charge test was run at a current density of 100 mA/g and a constant current of 42,68 mA. / Dagens samhälle genomgår en stor utveckling av litium-jon batterier för att kunna ersätta användningen av fossila bränslen. Höga entropi oxider är ny typ av material som används som anod material för litiumjonbatterier. Dessa höga entropi oxider kan bestå av en rad olika övergångsmetaller inklusive litium och syre i sammansättningen. I den här rapporten var (MgCoNiZn)1-xLixO syntetiserad med en metod som heter Pechini med ett molbråk på x=0,35. En studie har visat potentialen i dem elektrokemiska beetenden av (MgCoNiZn)1-xLixO till applicering som en anode i ett litiumjon batteri.  Syntetiseringen började med ett uppvärmningsteg för att bränna bort alla organiska föreningar. Resulterade pulvret bestod av olika strukturer, och till ett kalcinerings steg för att lösa upp mellanfaserna till NaCL-struktur. Strukturen på pulvret hade en gitter constant på 4,138 Å. Pulvret gjordes till en slurry som innehåller amorft kol, PVDF och NMP för att sedan belägga elektroden med en Dr.Blade. Efter beläggningen har fått torka monterades cellen med litium som katod och 1M LiPF6 in 1:1 EC/DMC som elektrolyt. Tester utfördes på cellen med hjälp av en potentiostat medans cellen var förvaren i en klimatkammare i 25°C.  7 stycken cykler kördes för att plotta en cyklisk voltametri graf samt en urladdning-laddning prov utfördes. Cykliska voltametrin och urladdning-laddnings prov utfördes med ett spänningsintervall på 0,05-3,0V. Urladdning-laddnings provet hade en strömtäthet på 100 mA/g och en konstant ström på 42,68 mA.

<p> Energy storage has received much attention due to the increasing use of energy, especially renewable energy. Lithium-ion batteries have great characteristics for electrical energy storage. Higher specific energy density, cycle life, cell voltage, shorter charge times gives lithium-ion batteries favorable energy storage characteristics over other battery chemistries. Although lithium-ion batteries are increasing in use for electrical energy storage, their safety still poses an engineering problem. When lithium-ion batteries are abused, they can enter thermal runaway. This event is dangerous as it can eject hot gases and shrapnel. Previous studies focused on different aspects of thermal runaway, for example, heat generation from chemical reactions, propagation to other cells, and the physics of gas venting. One phenomenon that has not received much attention is the evaporation of the electrolyte out of a failed lithium-ion battery. Understanding the effect of electrolyte evaporation is key to having a more complete understanding of thermal runaway. In this thesis, the physics of electrolyte evaporation is studied with the purpose of developing more accurate thermal abuse models. An evaporation model was developed, based on porous drying theory and a 1-D liquid diffusion process. Experiments were conducted to identify the liquid diffusion coefficient which governs the rate of electrolyte transport within the porous separator within the battery. The 1-D liquid diffusion model was then implemented into an existing thermal abuse model and exercised for a typical oven test scenario. Results showed that the physics-based evaporation model resulted in excellent agreement with experimental data at different oven temperatures.</p>

Following the positive reception of electric and hybrid transport solutions in the market, manufacturers keep developing their vehicles further, while facing previously undertaken challenges. Knowing the way lithium-ion batteries behave is still one of the key factors for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) development, especially for the requirements of the battery management system during their operation. Hence, this project focuses on the necessity of robust yet reasonably simple and cost-effective models of the battery for estimating the health status during the operation of the vehicles. With this aim, the procedure and models to calculate the state-of-health (SOH) indicators, internal resistance and capacity, are proposed and the results discussed. Two machine-learning based models are presented, a support vector machine (SVM) and a neural network (NN), together with one equivalent circuit model (ECM). The data used for training and validating the models comes from testing the batteries in the laboratory with standard performance tests and real driving cycles along the battery lifespan. However, data sets measured in actual heavy-duty vehicles during their operation for three years is also analysed and compared. With respect to this matter, a study of the battery materials, behaviour and operation attributes is carried out, highlighting the main aspects and issues that affect the development of the models. The inputs for the models are signals that can be measured on-board in the vehicles, as current, voltage or temperature, and other derived from them as the state-of-charge (SOC) calculated by the internal battery management unit. Time-series of the variables are used for simulation purposes. The management of signals and implementation of the models is done in the environment of Matlab-Simulink, using some of its in-built functions and other specifically developed. The models are evaluated and compared by means of the normalized root mean squared error (NRMSE) of the voltage output profile compared to that of the tested batteries, but also the error of the internal resistance calculations calculated from the voltage profile for the three models, and the internal parameters in case of the ECM. While despite the difficulties faced with the data, the models can eventually perform accurate estimations of the resistance, the results of the capacity estimations are omitted in the document due to the lack of useful information derived. Nevertheless, the calculation procedure and other considerations to take into account regarding the capacity estimation and data sets are undertaken. Finally, the conclusions about the data used, battery materials and methods evaluated are drawn, laying down recommendations as to design the performance tests following the conditions of the driving cycles, and indicating the higher general performance of the SVM respect the other two methods, while asserting the usefulness of the ECM. Moreover, the battery with NMC material composition is observed to be easier to predict by the models than LFP, also showing different evolution of its internal resistance.

The electrification of the transport sector in combination with an increased demand for storage solutions for renewable energy is contributing to a rapid growth of the battery market. Lithium-ion batteries have shown to be a promising technology for efficient energy storage the last two decades. A rapidly increasing battery production will however cause challenges within waste management and put pressure on current recycling infrastructures. Within research, insufficient attention has been given to how traditional manufacturing strategy is applied within recycling environments. The objective of this study was, therefore, to investigate if and how the unique characteristics of battery recycling affect its manufacturing strategy. A case study of the planning of a battery recycling unit was conducted in collaboration with Northvolt AB to detect challenges and unique characteristics for battery recycling. A framework within manufacturing strategy was applied on the contextual study to identify underlying factors to be considered when building a large scale recycling. Based on multiple interviews with industry expert’s, critical factors were identified and classified according to the literature framework. Our research concludes that the main categories within traditional manufacturing strategy are valid within a recycling environment. On an operational level, however, it was implied that the specific characteristics for recycling have to be considered when formulating a manufacturing strategy. To concretize, it is suggested that attention is given to uncertainties in inflow, of both timing and amount of discarded products. It is important to carefully consider the variety in battery chemistry fed into the recycling process and to design a flexible process, to be prepared for future disruption. Furthermore, managerial implications for battery producers are to facilitate recycling through three key aspects; simplifying the disassembly of battery systems, developing intelligent labelling systems and to push for industry standards. / Elektrifieringen av transportsektorn i kombination med en ökad efterfrågan av förnybar energi, bidrar till en snabb tillväxt av batterimarknaden. Litiumjonbatterier har under de senaste två decennierna visat sig vara en lovande teknologi för effektiv energilagring. En snabbt ökande batteriproduktion skapar dock utmaningar för nuvarande återvinningssystem. Otillräcklig forskning har givits till hur traditionell produktionsstrategi kan appliceras i återvinningsmiljöer. Därav var målet med denna studie att undersöka om och hur återvinningsmiljöns unika karaktär påverkar dess produktionsstrategi. En case studie av en planerad återvinningsanläggning genomfördes i samarbete med Northvolt AB, för att identifiera utmaningar och unika karaktärsdrag för batteriåtervinning. Ett litterärt ramverk inom produktionsstrategi applicerades på den kontextuella studien för att sammanställa och utvärdera underliggande faktorer som bör tas i beaktning för en storskalig återvinningsanläggning. Efter ett flertal intervjuer med experter kunde kritiska faktorer identifieras och klassificeras enligt det litterära ramverket. Studien visar att huvudkategorierna inom traditionell produktionsstrategi även gäller för återvinnig. På en operationell nivå konstateras det dock att den specifika karaktären för återvinning måste tas i beaktning när strategin utformas. För att konkretisera rekommenderas det att osäkerheter i inflöde, gällande fördröjning och mängder av kasserade batterier, hanteras i samarbete med externa aktörer som kan garantera en kontinuerlig leverans. Det är även viktigt att se över variationen av batterikemier som behandlas i återvinningsprocessen samt att designa en flexibel process som snabbt kan anpassas till framtida behov. Slutligen indikerar studien att batteriproducenter bör sträva efter att förenkla batteriåtervinning genom tre huvudpunkter; underlätta demontering av batterisystem, utveckla intelligent märkning och främja industristandarder.

In this thesis, a physics-based single particle modeling is presented to analyze a proposed direct coupled hybrid energy storage modules using lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor. Firstly, a state of the art for the energy storage system in the electrified vehicles are summarized. Several energy storage elements including lead-acid battery, nickel-metal hydride battery, lithium-ion battery, ultracapacitor, and lithium-ion capacitor are reviewed. Requirements of the energy storage systems in electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are generalized. Typical hybrid energy storage system topologies are also reviewed. Moreover, these energy storage elements and hybrid energy storage system topologies are compared to the requirements of the energy storage systems in terms of specific power and specific energy. Secondly, the performance of different battery balancing topologies, including line shunting, ring shunting, synchronous flyback, multi-winding, and dissipative shunting are analyzed based on a linear programming methodology. As a traction battery in an electric or plug-in electric vehicle, high voltage lithium-ion packs are typically configured in a modular fashion, therefore, the analysis considers the balancing topologies at module level and cell level and focuses on minimum balancing time, minimum plug-in charge time, minimum energy loss, and component counts of every balancing topology for the entire battery pack. Thirdly, different modeling techniques for the lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor are presented. One of the main contributions of this thesis is the development of a physics-based single particle modeling embedded with a solid-electrolyte interface growth model for a lithium-ion battery in battery management system. This development considers the numerical solution of diffusion equation, cell level quantities, parametrization method, effects of number of shells in a spherical particle, SOC-SOH estimation algorithms, and aging effects. The accuracy of the modeling is validated by experimental results of a Panasonic NCR18650A lithium-ion battery cell. Fourthly, the physics-based modeling is applied to analyze the performance of a proposed direct coupled hybrid energy storage module topology based on the Panasonic NCR18650A lithium-ion battery and Maxwell BCAP0350 ultracapacitor. There are many ways to directly connect battery cells and ultracapacitor cells in a module which would influence the performance of the module. The results show that a module has 9 cells in a battery string and 14 cells in an ultracapacitor string can obtain the highest power capability and utilize the most of the energy in an ultracapacitor. More ultracapacitor strings connected in parallel would increase the power density but reduce the energy density. Moreover, the simulation and experimental results indicate that the direct coupled hybrid modules can extend the operating range and slow the capacity fade of lithium-ion battery. An SOC-SOH estimation algorithm for the hybrid module is also developed based on the physics-based modeling. Finally, a pack design methodology is proposed to meet U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium LLC PHEV-40, power-assist, and 48V HEV performance targets for the battery packs or the proposed direct coupled topologies. In order to explore replacement tradeoffs between the battery and ultracapacitor, a case study of the direct coupled topologies is presented. From the case study, ultracapacitors enhance the power capability for short term pulse power and marginally reduce the cost of an entire energy storage system. Moreover, the hybrid module topologies can keep a relatively long all-electric range when the batteries degrade. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Lack of technical cleanliness and particle contaminations in Lithium-ion battery manufacturing affect the performance of batteries which are a risk for the safety and quality of the product. Therefore, part of the manufacturing process occurs inside the Clean and Dry room area to maintain technical cleanliness. This paper aims to provide a framework to control particle contamination inside the Clean and Dry room and strengthen the product's quality and safety. A literature study was conducted, which was completed by a field study at Northvolt Labs in Västerås to achieve the study's aims. The study contributes to existing theories by providing a framework to find root causes of particle contamination in the manufacturing process based on the existing literature and standards. The Six Sigma problem-solving methodology DMAIC was implemented to conduct the field study. A risk assessment was conducted to find the possible threats toward technical cleanliness in the cell assembly process. The risk sources were identified by implementing measurement methods from relevant standards. The results indicate a high risk for technical cleanliness are coming from the decontamination method, material, machines, and environment. Furthermore, several recommendations were given that are expected to decrease the amount of nonconformity in the process. / Brist på teknisk renhet och partikelföroreningar vid tillverkning av litiumjonbatterier påverkar dess prestanda och utgör en risk för produktens säkerhet och kvalitet. Därför sker en del av tillverkningsprocessen i ett Clean &amp; Dry rum för att upprätthålla teknisk renhet. Denna uppsats syftar till att ge ett ramverk för att kontrollera partikelföroreningar och därmed stärka produktens kvalitet och säkerhet. För att uppnå syftet genomfördes först en litteraturstudie vilket vidare kompletterades med en fältstudie vid Northvolt Labs i Västerås. Studien bidrar till befintliga teorier genom att tillhandahålla ett ramverk för att hitta och åtgärda rotorsaker till partikelkontaminering i tillverkningsprocessen baserat på befintlig litteratur och standarder. Sex Sigma problemlösningsmetoden DMAIC implementerades för att genomföra fältstudien. En riskbedömning genomfördes för att hitta riskfyllda aktiviteter i processen. Vidare implementerades mätmetoder från relevanta standarder för att mäta kontamineringsnivån. Resultaten indikerar stor risk för tekniskrenhet från saneringsmetoder, material, maskiner och miljön. Vidare rekommenderas flera åtgärder för att underhålla tekniskrenhet vilka förväntas minska avvikelser i processen.

No description available.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第24107号 / 工博第5029号 / 新制||工||1785(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科物質エネルギー化学専攻 / (主査)教授 安部 武志, 教授 作花 哲夫, 教授 阿部 竜 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

To reach the Swedish goal of reaching a completely fossil-free electricity sector by the year 2040, there is a need for an increased rate of installed renewable electricity sources. Companies have the opportunity to work towards this goal by investing in solar power technologies, which results in a lowered electricity bill, and an additional revenue when electricity is sold to the grid. As a result, the investment usually pays back within a reasonable timeframe. GEHAB is a company located that is located in Alvesta, Sweden, and they are interested in investing in rooftop solar power. This thesis investigates the potential and effects of such an investment at the company through energy simulations. This is done through four different scenarios, which aim at finding the largest possible installation, the most cost-optimal installation, according to the Levelized Cost Of Energy (LCOE), the impact of an added battery installation and finding the current issues with becoming a net-zero consumer of electricity. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was made to investigate how different factors impacted the LCOE. The results showed that the most cost-optimal size for the company to invest in was a 215 kWp installation, which is smaller than the maximum possible size of 335 kWp that can be installed on the rooftop. Such an installation would have an LCOE of -366 SEK/MWh when the avoided costs are included. The discounted payback time of that investment was 11.3 years. The involvement of batteries showed that they would lead to a higher LCOE and for the largest possible solar installation size, including a battery, means that it would not pay back within the lifetime of the PVs. Finally, the net-zero electricity consumption scenario found that currently, the largest issue to reach this scenario is that there is a regulation that limits solar installations to 500 kWp to avoid an energy tax.

With the current shift towards renewable energy sources, the demand for batteries is expected to follow an exponential increase in the future, and lithium-ion batteries will be the bulk of it. In order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from battery production and to secure future availability of critical metals, more batteries will need to be recycled. To incentivize this, the European Union will impose regulations on recycling efficiencies as well as recycled content in produced batteries. The purpose of this study was twofold. Firstly, it was to construct a model in Microsoft Excel which could follow the flow of materials from recycling through production and keep track of an inventory which could be allocated to customers as needed. Moreover, the model had to be able to calculate values such as recycled content in produced battery cells and take into account losses from production etc. Secondly, this thesis aimed to use the model to determine how many old cells would have to be recycled in order to produce a modern cell with a certain percentage of recycled content, as well as to determine which recycled active cathode metals there might be surpluses and shortages of. This was done as a case study at the company Northvolt AB, by gathering data from literature, interviews, and site visits. The model was then built iteratively, based on a material flow analysis approach. Finally, the model was used in a methodical manner to test the conversion rates and to determine how big the shortages and surpluses of materials would be. This thesis argues that there is no truly relevant literature on building a material flow and allocation model such as the one required here. However, using the method described above, it was possible nonetheless to construct the novel model. The model consists of several sheets with distinct functions and is scalable while also adaptable to other companies and industries. Among other things, it keeps track of inventory levels with a scalable time axle and helps the user set values to reach target recycled weight percentages. The model can also be used to perform the analyses required for the second half of the purpose of this thesis. The key outcome from that, was that recycling old batteries and producing new ones is far from a 1:1 process and that higher requirements on recycling efficiencies could greatly improve that. Moreover, the active cathode metals which would require the largest amounts of batteries to be recycled in order to produce new cells with recycled content at certain levels, were identified as bottlenecks. When using the required recycling efficiencies from the European Union in 2025 and 2030, the bottleneck metals were lithium and nickel if the new batteries were to contain 100 % recycled active cathode metals. However, if the recycled content should be in line with European Union regulations, the bottlenecks would be cobalt and nickel instead. This could shift the demand for virgin active cathode metals in favor of cobalt and nickel. / Med dagens skifte till förnybara energikällor förväntas efterfrågan på batterier följa en exponentiell ökning i framtiden, och litiumjonbatterier kommer stå för merparten av den. För att minska koldioxidutsläppen från batteriproduktion och för att säkra framtida tillgång till kritiska material kommer fler batterier behöva återvinnas. För att ge incitament till detta, kommer Europeiska unionen införa regleringar på återvinningseffektiviteter och återvunnet innehåll i nya batterier. Syftet med denna studie var tvåfaldigt. Det första syftet var att bygga en modell i Microsoft Excel som kunde följa materialflöden från återvinning genom produktion och hålla kolla på ett lager som kunde allokeras till kunder efter behov. Dessutom behövde modellen kunna räkna ut värden såsom återvunnet innehåll i producerade battericeller samt ta hänsyn till förluster i produktion etc. Det andra syftet var att använda modellen till att bestämma hur många gamla celler som skulle behöva återvinnas för att producera en modern cell med vissa nivåer av återvunnet innehåll, såväl som att bestämma vilka återvunna aktiva katodmetaller det kan bli överskott och underskott av. Detta gjordes som en fallstudie på företaget Northvolt AB, genom att samla data från litteratur, intervjuer och studiebesök. Modellen byggdes sedan iterativt, baserat på en materialflödesanalys. Slutligen användes modellen på ett metodiskt sätt för att testa omvandlingseffektiviteter och bestämma hur stora underskotten och överskotten av material skulle bli. Denna avhandling menar att det inte finns någon riktigt relevant litteratur om att bygga en materialflödes- och allokeringsmodell som den som krävdes här. Med metoderna som beskrevs ovan var det dock möjligt att bygga modellen och bryta ny mark på vägen. Modellen består av flera ark med distinkta funktioner och är skalbar samtidigt som den kan anpassas till andra företag och industrier. Den håller bland annat reda på lagernivåer med en skalbar tidsaxel och hjälper användaren bestämma värden som behövs för att nå målen på återvunna viktprocent. Modellen kan också användas för att utföra de analyser som behövs för att uppfylla andra halvan av avhandlingens syfte. Huvudresultatet från det, är att återvinning av gamla batterier och produktion av nya är långt ifrån en 1:1 process och att högre krav på återvinningseffektiviteter skulle förbättra det markant. Vidare identifierades de aktiva katodmetallerna som skulle kräva de största mängderna återvunna batterier för att producera nya celler med vissa nivåer av återvunnet innehåll. De kallades flaskhalsar. Med Europeiska unionens krav på återvinningseffektiviteter för 2025 och 2030, var flaskhalsmetallerna litium och nickel om de nya batterierna skulle innehålla 100 % återvunna aktiva katodmetaller. Om det återvunna innehållet å andra sidan skulle vara i linje med Europeiska unionens regleringar, skulle flaskhalsarna vara kobolt och nickel istället. Detta skulle kunna skifta efterfrågan på nybrutna aktiva katodmetaller till fördel för kobolt och nickel.