Estudos recentes têm revelado que a maior parte dos transcritos gerados em células humanas é composta por RNAs não-codificadores de proteínas (ncRNAs). Uma parte desses ncRNAs compreende a classe de RNAs curtos, que possuem menos que 200 nucleotídeos. Os micro-RNAs (miRNAs) fazem parte dessa classe e têm sido alvo de grande interesse, pois são preditos como possíveis reguladores de mais de 60% dos RNAs mensageiros (mRNAs) humanos. Outra classe dos ncRNAs é composta por ncRNAs longos (lncRNAs, com mais de 200 nucleotídeos), que são transcritos a partir de regiões intergênicas e intrônicas do genoma humano e possuem várias funções, muitas delas relacionadas ao controle da expressão de mRNAs. Recentemente, os lncRNAs têm sido caracterizados quanto à sua estrutura e função. No entanto, muito pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos pelos quais os lncRNAs são regulados. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar se lncRNAs são regulados por miRNAs em células humanas. Para tanto, identificamos lncRNAs ligados ao complexo de silenciamento induzido por RNA (RISC) em células da linhagem HeLa, utilizando um método aqui desenvolvido de geração de bibliotecas de cDNA direcionadas para sequenciamento em larga escala na plataforma 454/Roche. Em paralelo, sequenciamos os miRNAs ligados ao RISC nestas mesmas células. Os resultados obtidos mostram que centenas de lncRNAs de diversas classes se ligam ao RISC em células HeLa, juntamente com milhares de mRNAs e várias centenas de miRNAs. Entre os miRNAs, encontramos 37 que são preditos como alvejando os lncRNAs detectados. Estes miRNAs constituem possíveis reguladores dos lncRNAs e, portanto, nosso trabalho estabelece um mapa experimental de interações diretas entre lncRNAs e miRNAs. Dentre os lncRNAs identificados ligados ao RISC neste trabalho, destaca-se o TUG1, lincRNA sabidamente envolvido na regulação de genes relacionados à apoptose e ao ciclo celular. Mostramos por ensaio de super-expressão de miRNAs e qPCR que TUG1 é regulado pelo miRNA-148b, um dos miRNAs por nós detectados que possui um sítio alvo altamente conservado em mamíferos localizado na extremidade 3\' de TUG1. Em conjunto, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento da regulação dos níveis de expressão de lncRNAs em células humanas e abre perspectivas para a modulação de miRNAs como estratégia de regulação dos níveis e das funções de lncRNAs. / Recent studies have revealed that the largest fraction of the transcripts generated in human cells is composed of non-protein coding RNAs (ncRNAs). A portion of these RNAs encompasses the class of short RNAs, which are less than 200 nucleotides in length. Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are part of this class and are of great interest, as they are predicted to target over 60% of the human messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Another class of ncRNAs is composed of long ncRNAs (lncRNAs, longer than 200 nucleotides), which are transcribed from intergenic and intronic regions of the human genome and have several functions, many of them related to the control of the mRNA expression. Recently, the structure and function of lncRNAs have been characterized. However, little is known about the mechanisms involved in lncRNA regulation. This work aimed to evaluate whether lncRNAs are regulated by miRNAs in human cells. For this purpose, we identified lncRNAs bound to the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) in HeLa cells using a method developed here for the generation of strand-specific cDNA libraries for large scale RNA-sequencing in the 454/Roche plataform. In parallel, we sequenced the miRNAs bound to RISC in these cells. Our results show that hundreds of lncRNAs from diverse classes are bound to RISC in HeLa cells, along with thousands of mRNAs and several hundred miRNAs. Among the miRNAs we identified 37 that are predicted to target the detected lncRNAs. These miRNAs are possible regulators of the lncRNAs, and therefore our work establishes an experimental map of direct interactions between lncRNAs and miRNAs. The lncRNA TUG1, a lincRNA involved in the regulation of genes related to apoptosis and cell cycle, was identified among the lncRNAs bound to RISC. We showed by miRNA over-expression and qPCR that TUG-1 is regulated by the miRNA-148b, which is one of the miRNAs detected in our sequencings and has a binding site highly conserved in mammals located at the TUG1 3` end. Taken together, our results contribute to the understanding of the regulation of the lncRNA expression levels in human cells and open perspectives for the modulation of miRNAs as a strategy to regulate the levels and functions of lncRNAs.

A dengue é uma infecção viral sistêmica que pode se manifestar clinicamente de diversas formas, desde febres leves a hemorragia e síndrome do choque, condições potencialmente fatais. Diversos estudos já foram publicados investigando as mudanças globais de expressão que ocorrem durante a evolução da doença nesses diferentes quadros clínicos. Porém, nenhum desses estudos analisou o papel dos RNAs não codificadores longos (lncRNAs) na progressão da doença. Neste projeto, foi realizada uma metanálise dos dados de expressão provenientes desses estudos de dengue focando na expressão de lncRNAs e seus possíveis mecanismos de regulação gênica. Foram identificados dezenas de lncRNAs cuja expressão aumenta ou diminui em pacientes infectados com dengue comparado com pessoas saudáveis. Através de análise de \"guilty-by-association\", procurou-se identificar genes codificadores de proteína possivelmente regulados por esses lncRNAs ou genes que os regulem. Nossos resultados fornecem evidência de novos mecanismos de regulação entre lncRNAs e mRNAs. / Dengue fever is a systemic viral infection that can manifest clinically in a variety of ways, from mild fever to potentially fatal conditions such as hemorrhage and shock syndrome. Several studies have already been published investigating the global changes in expression that occur during the evolution of the disease in these different clinical settings. However, none of these studies analyzed the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in disease progression. In this project, we performed a meta-analysis of transcriptome data obtained from these dengue studies and focused on the expression of lncRNAs and their possible mechanisms of gene regulation. Dozens of lncRNAs have been identified whose expression increases or decreases in patients infected with dengue compared to healthy individuals. Through guilty-by-association analysis, we identified several lncRNAs that possibly regulate protein coding genes. Our results provide evidence of novel regulatory mechanisms between lncRNAs and mRNAs.

There is a growing appreciation that eukaryotic genomes are transcribed into numerous, previously undetected - and thus uncharacterized regulatory long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Recent studies are primarily focused on lncRNAs transcribed from intergenic regions and enhancers, leaving antisense lncRNAs the least studied group of lncRNAs. At the same time, antisense transcription occurs in up to 74 % of human gene loci, frequently - from the opposite strand of genes encoding proteins involved in regulation of transcription. Here, we identified HIPSTAR (Heterogeneously expressed from the Intronic Plus Strand of the TFAP2A-locus RNA), a novel conserved lncRNA that is transcribed antisense to the TFAP2A gene. Unlike previously reported antisense lncRNAs, HIPSTR expression does not correlate with the expression of its antisense counterpart. Although HIPSTAR and TFAP2A are co-expressed in in vitro derived neural crest and trophoblast cells, only HIPSTAR and not TFAP2A is specifically expressed in a subset of cells within 8-cell- and morula-stage human embryos. We show that, similar to HIPSTAR, in the individual cells of developing human embryos or of stable cell lines the expression of lncRNAs is more highly heterogeneous than the expression of mRNAs. Finally, we demonstrate that HIPSTAR depletion in HEK293 and H1BP, a human embryonic stem cell line, predominantly affects the expression levels of genes involved in early organismal development and cell differentiation. Together, we show that expression of HIPSTAR and hundreds other lncRNAs is highly heterogeneous in human embryos and cell lines. We use HIPSTAR to exemplify the functional relevance of lncRNAs with heterogeneous and developmental stage-specific expression patterns. / Tem sido cada vez mais reconhecido que a transcrição dos genomas eucarióticos produz múltiplos transcritos novos, anteriormente não detectados e ainda não caracterizados, sendo que a maioria é constituida de RNAs não-codificantes longos (lncRNAs) regulatórios. Estudos recentes estão focados principalmente nos lncRNAs transcritos de regiões intergênicas e enhancers; assim, o grupo dos lncRNAs antisenso permanece o menos estudado de todos. Ao mesmo tempo, a transcrição antisenso ocorre em até 74% dos loci de genes humanos, frequentemente - a partir da fita oposta de genes que codificam proteínas envolvidas na regulação da transcrição. No presente trabalho, nós identificamos HIPSTR (Heterogeneously expressed from the Intronic Plus Strand of the TFAP2A-locus RNA), um lncRNA novo conservado que é transcrito a partir da fita antisenso do gene TFAP2A. Ao contrário do anteriormente relatado para os lncRNAs antisenso, a expressão de HIPSTR não está correlacionada com a expressão do gene da fita oposta. HIPSTR e TFAP2A são co-expressos em células da crista neural e em trofoblastos derivadas in vitro, mas somente HIPSTR e não TFAP2A está especificamente expresso num subconjunto de células de embriões humanos nos estágios de 8-células e mórula. Mostramos que, semelhante a HIPSTR, a expressão de lncRNAs é mais altamente heterogênea que a expressão de mRNAs em células individuais de embriões humanos em desenvolvimento ou em linhagens estáveis de células. Finalmente, nós demonstramos que a depleção de HIPSTAR em células HEK293 e H1BP, uma linhagem de células tronco embrionárias humanas, afeta predominantemente os níveis de genes envolvidos no início do desenvolvimento do organismo e na diferenciação de células. No conjunto, nós mostramos que a expressão de HIPSTR e de centenas de outros lncRNAs é altamente heterogênea em embriões humanos e linhagens celulares. Usamos HIPSTR para exemplificar a relevância funcional de lncRNAs com padrões de expressão heterogêneos e estágio-de-desenvolvimento específicos.

Le virus de la maladie de Marek (MDV) est un virus oncogène responsable des lymphomes T chez les poulets. L´infection par ce virus est divisée en une phase lytique dépendante de l´expression du gène très précoce ICP4 et une phase latente, caractérisée par l´expression de l’ARN long non codant LAT localisé en antisens. Nous avons montré que l’expression différentielle des miARN du cluster mdv1-miR-M8-M10 était directement corrélée à l’épissage alternatif de l’intron 1 du LAT et plus particulièrement à la biogenèse par le splicéosome du premier mirtron viral. La présence du mirtron mdv1-miR-M6 au milieu du cluster est associée à une cinétique d’expression des miARN. En parallèle, nous avons identifié deux promoteurs alternatifs de type Sp1, quatre signaux poly-A et trois exons associés à la régulation de la transcription du transcrit ICP4. Nous avons prédits cinq isoformes potentielles pour la protéine ICP4 et avons pu observer par immunodétection que la protéine était exprimée principalement dans le cytoplasme des cellules infectées en phase lytique ou de réactivation. / The Marek disease virus (MDV) is an oncogenic herpesvirus responsible of T-cell lymphoma in chicken. MDV infections are divided into a lytic phase, depending on the expression of immediate early gene like ICP4, and a latent phase characterized by the expression of the long non-coding RNA LAT localized in antisense. In this study, we have shown the differential expression of the cluster of miRNA mdv1-miR-M8-M10 was directly correlated with the alternative splicing of LAT’s intron 1 and more specifically with the first viral mirtron biogenesis by the spliceosome. The location of the mirtron mdv1-miR-M6 inside of the cluster is associated with a two-step biogenesis of the miARN of the cluster. On the other hand, we have identified a dual promoter that responded to Sp1, four poly-A signals and three exons that are responsible of transcriptional regulation of ICP4 transcript. We also have predicted five potential isoproteines for ICP4 and were able to observe by immunodetection that ICP4 was mainly expressed in the cytoplasm of infected cells during the lytic phase or the reactivation one.

There is a growing appreciation that eukaryotic genomes are transcribed into numerous, previously undetected - and thus uncharacterized regulatory long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Recent studies are primarily focused on lncRNAs transcribed from intergenic regions and enhancers, leaving antisense lncRNAs the least studied group of lncRNAs. At the same time, antisense transcription occurs in up to 74 % of human gene loci, frequently - from the opposite strand of genes encoding proteins involved in regulation of transcription. Here, we identified HIPSTAR (Heterogeneously expressed from the Intronic Plus Strand of the TFAP2A-locus RNA), a novel conserved lncRNA that is transcribed antisense to the TFAP2A gene. Unlike previously reported antisense lncRNAs, HIPSTR expression does not correlate with the expression of its antisense counterpart. Although HIPSTAR and TFAP2A are co-expressed in in vitro derived neural crest and trophoblast cells, only HIPSTAR and not TFAP2A is specifically expressed in a subset of cells within 8-cell- and morula-stage human embryos. We show that, similar to HIPSTAR, in the individual cells of developing human embryos or of stable cell lines the expression of lncRNAs is more highly heterogeneous than the expression of mRNAs. Finally, we demonstrate that HIPSTAR depletion in HEK293 and H1BP, a human embryonic stem cell line, predominantly affects the expression levels of genes involved in early organismal development and cell differentiation. Together, we show that expression of HIPSTAR and hundreds other lncRNAs is highly heterogeneous in human embryos and cell lines. We use HIPSTAR to exemplify the functional relevance of lncRNAs with heterogeneous and developmental stage-specific expression patterns. / Tem sido cada vez mais reconhecido que a transcrição dos genomas eucarióticos produz múltiplos transcritos novos, anteriormente não detectados e ainda não caracterizados, sendo que a maioria é constituida de RNAs não-codificantes longos (lncRNAs) regulatórios. Estudos recentes estão focados principalmente nos lncRNAs transcritos de regiões intergênicas e enhancers; assim, o grupo dos lncRNAs antisenso permanece o menos estudado de todos. Ao mesmo tempo, a transcrição antisenso ocorre em até 74% dos loci de genes humanos, frequentemente - a partir da fita oposta de genes que codificam proteínas envolvidas na regulação da transcrição. No presente trabalho, nós identificamos HIPSTR (Heterogeneously expressed from the Intronic Plus Strand of the TFAP2A-locus RNA), um lncRNA novo conservado que é transcrito a partir da fita antisenso do gene TFAP2A. Ao contrário do anteriormente relatado para os lncRNAs antisenso, a expressão de HIPSTR não está correlacionada com a expressão do gene da fita oposta. HIPSTR e TFAP2A são co-expressos em células da crista neural e em trofoblastos derivadas in vitro, mas somente HIPSTR e não TFAP2A está especificamente expresso num subconjunto de células de embriões humanos nos estágios de 8-células e mórula. Mostramos que, semelhante a HIPSTR, a expressão de lncRNAs é mais altamente heterogênea que a expressão de mRNAs em células individuais de embriões humanos em desenvolvimento ou em linhagens estáveis de células. Finalmente, nós demonstramos que a depleção de HIPSTAR em células HEK293 e H1BP, uma linhagem de células tronco embrionárias humanas, afeta predominantemente os níveis de genes envolvidos no início do desenvolvimento do organismo e na diferenciação de células. No conjunto, nós mostramos que a expressão de HIPSTR e de centenas de outros lncRNAs é altamente heterogênea em embriões humanos e linhagens celulares. Usamos HIPSTR para exemplificar a relevância funcional de lncRNAs com padrões de expressão heterogêneos e estágio-de-desenvolvimento específicos.

Estudos recentes têm revelado que a maior parte dos transcritos gerados em células humanas é composta por RNAs não-codificadores de proteínas (ncRNAs). Uma parte desses ncRNAs compreende a classe de RNAs curtos, que possuem menos que 200 nucleotídeos. Os micro-RNAs (miRNAs) fazem parte dessa classe e têm sido alvo de grande interesse, pois são preditos como possíveis reguladores de mais de 60% dos RNAs mensageiros (mRNAs) humanos. Outra classe dos ncRNAs é composta por ncRNAs longos (lncRNAs, com mais de 200 nucleotídeos), que são transcritos a partir de regiões intergênicas e intrônicas do genoma humano e possuem várias funções, muitas delas relacionadas ao controle da expressão de mRNAs. Recentemente, os lncRNAs têm sido caracterizados quanto à sua estrutura e função. No entanto, muito pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos pelos quais os lncRNAs são regulados. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar se lncRNAs são regulados por miRNAs em células humanas. Para tanto, identificamos lncRNAs ligados ao complexo de silenciamento induzido por RNA (RISC) em células da linhagem HeLa, utilizando um método aqui desenvolvido de geração de bibliotecas de cDNA direcionadas para sequenciamento em larga escala na plataforma 454/Roche. Em paralelo, sequenciamos os miRNAs ligados ao RISC nestas mesmas células. Os resultados obtidos mostram que centenas de lncRNAs de diversas classes se ligam ao RISC em células HeLa, juntamente com milhares de mRNAs e várias centenas de miRNAs. Entre os miRNAs, encontramos 37 que são preditos como alvejando os lncRNAs detectados. Estes miRNAs constituem possíveis reguladores dos lncRNAs e, portanto, nosso trabalho estabelece um mapa experimental de interações diretas entre lncRNAs e miRNAs. Dentre os lncRNAs identificados ligados ao RISC neste trabalho, destaca-se o TUG1, lincRNA sabidamente envolvido na regulação de genes relacionados à apoptose e ao ciclo celular. Mostramos por ensaio de super-expressão de miRNAs e qPCR que TUG1 é regulado pelo miRNA-148b, um dos miRNAs por nós detectados que possui um sítio alvo altamente conservado em mamíferos localizado na extremidade 3\' de TUG1. Em conjunto, este trabalho contribui para o entendimento da regulação dos níveis de expressão de lncRNAs em células humanas e abre perspectivas para a modulação de miRNAs como estratégia de regulação dos níveis e das funções de lncRNAs. / Recent studies have revealed that the largest fraction of the transcripts generated in human cells is composed of non-protein coding RNAs (ncRNAs). A portion of these RNAs encompasses the class of short RNAs, which are less than 200 nucleotides in length. Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are part of this class and are of great interest, as they are predicted to target over 60% of the human messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Another class of ncRNAs is composed of long ncRNAs (lncRNAs, longer than 200 nucleotides), which are transcribed from intergenic and intronic regions of the human genome and have several functions, many of them related to the control of the mRNA expression. Recently, the structure and function of lncRNAs have been characterized. However, little is known about the mechanisms involved in lncRNA regulation. This work aimed to evaluate whether lncRNAs are regulated by miRNAs in human cells. For this purpose, we identified lncRNAs bound to the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) in HeLa cells using a method developed here for the generation of strand-specific cDNA libraries for large scale RNA-sequencing in the 454/Roche plataform. In parallel, we sequenced the miRNAs bound to RISC in these cells. Our results show that hundreds of lncRNAs from diverse classes are bound to RISC in HeLa cells, along with thousands of mRNAs and several hundred miRNAs. Among the miRNAs we identified 37 that are predicted to target the detected lncRNAs. These miRNAs are possible regulators of the lncRNAs, and therefore our work establishes an experimental map of direct interactions between lncRNAs and miRNAs. The lncRNA TUG1, a lincRNA involved in the regulation of genes related to apoptosis and cell cycle, was identified among the lncRNAs bound to RISC. We showed by miRNA over-expression and qPCR that TUG-1 is regulated by the miRNA-148b, which is one of the miRNAs detected in our sequencings and has a binding site highly conserved in mammals located at the TUG1 3` end. Taken together, our results contribute to the understanding of the regulation of the lncRNA expression levels in human cells and open perspectives for the modulation of miRNAs as a strategy to regulate the levels and functions of lncRNAs.

Récemment, des analyses dans divers organismes eucaryotes ont révélé que l'ensemble du génome est transcrit et produit en plus des ARNs messagers, une grande variété d’ARNs non codants de différentes longueurs. Les ARNs non codants de plus de 200 nucleotides, classés comme longs ARNs non codants (LARNnc), représentent la classe la plus abondante de transcripts non codants. Les études des fonctions des LARNnc suggèrent que beaucoup d'entre eux seraient impliqués dans la régulation de la transcription. L'objectif de ma thèse de doctorat était d'élucider les mécanismes de la régulation transcriptionnelle médiée par des LARNnc dans différents systèmes eucaryotes. Dans mon premier projet, j'ai étudié le rôle d'un long ARN non codant antisens dans la régulation transcriptionnelle du gène PHO84, codant un transporteur de phosphate à haute affinité, chez S. cerevisiae. Des études antérieures ont montré que la suppression d’une proteine de l’exosome Rrp6 entraîne une augmentation de l'expression antisens et la répression de PHO84. Il a été suggéré que la perte de Rrp6 entraîne une stabilisation antisens au locus PHO84, entraînant le recrutement de l'histone de-acétylase Hda1 et la répression de PHO84. Cependant, le mécanisme par lequel Rrp6p régule la transcription de PHO84 n’était pas connu. En combinant des méthodes à l’échelle de cellule unique, des approches biochimiques et génétiques, nous avons montré que les niveaux d'ARN antisens sont régulés principalement lors de l'élongation par le complexe Nrd1-Nab3-Sen1, qui nécessite Rrp6 pour un recrutement efficace à l`extrémité 3`de PHO84. De plus, nous révélons l'expression anticorrelé du sens et de l'antisens, En résumé, nos données suggèrent que la transcription antisens régule le seuil d'activation du promoteur PHO84. Dans mon second projet, j'ai étudié les rôles des ARNs dérivés des amplificateurs (ARNa) dans la regulation de la transcription. En utilisant les cellules de cancer du sein MCF7 comme système modèle, nous avons cherché à déterminer comment les ARNa induits par l'oestrogène (E2) participent à la régulation de la transcription médiée par le recepteur d’oestrogène (ERα) au niveau de l'allèle unique. À l'aide de l’hybridation fluorescente à l’échelle de molécule unique (smFISH), nous avons révélé qu`après induction d'E2, les ARNa sont induits avec une cinétique similaire à celle des ARNm cibles, sont localisés exclusivement dans le noyau, principalement associés à la chromatine, et sont moins abondants que les ARNm. De manière surprenante, nous avons constaté que les ARNa sont rarement co-transcrits avec leurs loci cibles, indiquant que la transcription active des gènes ne nécessite pas la synthèse continue ou l'accumulation d'ARNa sur l'amplificateur. En outre, en utilisant des mesures de la distance à sous-diffraction, nous avons démontré que la cotranscription des ARNa et des ARNm se produit rarement dans une boucle amplificateurpromoteur. De plus, nous avons révélé que la transcription basale d'ARNa n'exige pas ERα ou l'histone méthyltransférase MLL1 qui active l'amplificateur par la mono-méthylation H3K4. Dans l'ensemble, nos résultats ont montré que les ARNa peuvent jouer un rôle lors de l'activation du promoteur, mais ne sont pas nécessaires pour maintenir la transcription de l'ARNm ou pour stabiliser les interactions amplificateur-promoteur. / Transcription is the initial step in gene expression and is subject to extensive regulation. Recently, analyses in diverse eukaryotes have revealed that in addition to protein coding genes, transcription occurs throughout the noncoding genome, producing non-coding RNAs of various lengths. Non-coding RNAs longer than 200 nucleotides, classified as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), represent the most abundant class of non-coding transcripts, whose functions however are poorly understood. Recent studies suggest that many lncRNAs might have roles in transcription regulation. The goal of my PhD thesis was to elucidate the mechanisms of lncRNA mediated transcription regulation in different eukaryotic systems. For my first project, I investigated the role of an antisense long noncoding RNA in transcription regulation of the high-affinity phosphate transporter gene PHO84 in the unicellular eukaryote S. cerevisiae. Previous studies showed that deletion of the nuclear exosome component Rrp6 results in increased antisense expression and repression of PHO84. It was suggested that the loss of Rrp6 results in antisense stabilization at the PHO84 locus, leading to recruitment of the histone de-acetylase Hda1 and repression of PHO84. However, most of the mechanistic details of how Rrp6p functions in regulating PHO84 transcription were not understood. Combining single cell methods with biochemical and genetic approaches, we showed that antisense RNA levels are regulated primarily during transcriptional elongation by the Nrd1-Nab3-Sen1 complex, which requires Rrp6 for efficient recruitment to the 3’end of PHO84. Furthermore, we reveal anti-correlated expression of sense and antisense, which have distinct modes of transcription. In summary, our data suggest a model whereby antisense transcriptional read-through into the PHO84 promoter regulates the activation threshold of the gene. For my second project, I investigated the roles of enhancer derived RNAs (eRNAs). eRNAs are lncRNAs transcribed from enhancers that have been suggested to regulate transcription through different mechanisms, including enhancer-promoter looping, RNA polymerase elongation, and chromatin remodeling. However, no coherent model of eRNA function has yet emerged. Using MCF7 breast cancer cells as a model system, we sought to determine how estrogen (E2) induced eRNAs participate in estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) mediated transcription regulation at the single allele level. Using single molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH), we revealed that upon E2 induction eRNAs are induced with similar kinetics as target mRNAs, but are localized exclusively in the nucleus, mostly chromatin associated, and are less abundant than mRNAs. Surprisingly, we found that eRNAs are rarely co-transcribed with their target loci, indicating that active gene transcription does not require the continuous synthesis or accumulation of eRNAs at the enhancer. Furthermore, using sub-diffraction-limit distance measurements, we demonstrated that co-transcription of eRNAs and mRNAs rarely occurs within a closed enhancer-promoter loop. Moreover, we revealed that basal eRNA transcription does not require ERα or the histone methyltransferase MLL1, which activates the enhancer through H3K4 mono-methylation. Altogether, our findings showed that eRNAs may play a role during promoter activation, but are not required to sustain mRNA transcription or stabilize enhancer-promoter looping interactions.

Les applications des cellules souches pluripotentes humaines (CSP) dans le domaine biomédical sont particulièrement prometteuses, aussi bien au niveau expérimental qu’au niveau clinique. Leur utilisation comme source inépuisable de cellules permettant de tester et développer de nouvelles molécules thérapeutiques (notamment par modélisation de pathologies in vitro, criblage haut-débit et tests de cytotoxicité) s’ajoute à l’important potentiel qu’elles présentent en médecine régénérative et en thérapie cellulaire. Utilisables comme matériel biologique permettant de restaurer partiellement ou totalement un organe ou un tissu défaillant, il reste essentiel de vérifier l’intégrité génétique des lignées cellulaires utilisées afin de garantir une utilisation sécurisée pour le patient. Parmi les facteurs responsables de l’apparition d’anomalies génétiques chez les CSP, les conditions cultures jouent un rôle essentiel. Des techniques de culture inadaptées peuvent facilement provoquer l’émergence d’une instabilité génomique. Toute altération doit être détectée et documentée afin de pouvoir définir des critères d’acceptation préalable à leur utilisation clinique.Les CSP sont des cellules particulièrement sensibles au stress qui peut résulter de techniques de repiquage inappropriées. La dérive génétique qui découle de ce stress peut être précoce et apparaître dès les premiers passages des lignées cultivées. Notre équipe a pu tester de nombreuses méthodes de repiquage sur différentes lignées cellulaires pluripotentes. Nous avons notamment observé que des anomalies génétiques majeures caryotypiques (trisomies) et infra-caryotypiques (SNPs) ainsi que des changements phénotypiques (survie augmentée, acquisition de mobilité) apparaissaient rapidement suite à l’utilisation de techniques de repiquage basées sur l’utilisation d’enzyme de dissociation (TryPLE). Ces altérations apparaissent dans des lignées qui s’adaptent progressivement à la dissociation en cellules uniques (dissociation « single-cell ») provoquées par ces enzymes.Notre équipe étudie les conséquences cellulaires liées à ce phénomène d’adaptation des CSP provoquée par la dissociation « single-cell ». Grâce à des techniques de séquençage dernière génération (RNA-Seq), nous avons comparé les profils transcriptomiques de CSP repiquées par des techniques standard (comme le passage mécanique) et par des techniques basées sur la dissociation « single-cell » (comme le passage enzymatique par TryPLE). Cette comparaison a montré au niveau transcriptionnel une surexpression spectaculaire d’ARNs non codants appartenant à une classe récemment décrite : les longs ARNs non codants (lncRNAs).L’objectif principal de ce travail de thèse a été d’évaluer le niveau d’implication de ces lncRNAs dans le processus d’adaptation des CSP en culture, et leur rôle fonctionnel potentiel. Nous avons ainsi dans un premier temps déterminé in silico quels lncRNAs étaient différentiellement exprimés dans les CSP adaptées, et après validation expérimentale par biologie moléculaire des candidats les plus prometteurs, nous avons utilisé des tests fonctionnels (notamment par RNA interférence (siRNA)) afin de déterminer le rôle de ces lncRNAs dans la machinerie cellulaire et la pluripotence des CSP. Autour de ce projet principal, nous avons essayé de comprendre les mécanismes régissant les changements phénotypiques et comportementaux provoquées par la dissociation « single-cell ». Nous avons notamment pu suggérer la mise en place d’un phénomène de transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse (EMT) chez des CSP dissociées. Enfin, l’attractivité que représente un sujet d’étude récent comme les lncRNAs et la disponibilité croissante de publications les concernant nous ont poussé à publier une revue approfondie ainsi qu’une méta-analyse sur l’implication des longs ARN non codants dans le développement précoce de l’embryon et dans les cellules souches pluripotentes. / The actual and future applications of human pluripotent stem cells (PSC) in the biomedical field are highly promising. Their use for the discovery of new therapeutic drugs through the development of high-throughput screening tests, cytotoxicity tests and in vitro disease modeling has been added to their tremendous interests in regenerative medicine and cellular therapy. As a source of biological material that can be used to restore partially or totally the lost functions of a damaged organ or tissue, or as a source of normal cells to study human development or test putative new drugs, their genomic integrity has to be thoroughly assessed. Therefore, an effective optimization of their culture conditions has to be considered, in order to control the absence of genomic instability and prevent their potential emergence. Any genetic or epigenetic alteration resulting from cell culturing must be detected in order to define and characterize acceptance criteria for scientific and medical purposes.PSC are particularly sensitive to stress resulting from unappropriated passaging techniques, which cause rapid genetic drift. Indeed, our team observed that many genomic abnormalities arise from aggressive single cell, enzymatic based, passaging methods, and that substantial phenotypical changes such as increased survival after cell dissociation and variation in cell shape can then occur.In order to understand the mechanisms governing the emergence of those adverse alterations, the team focused on the consequences resulting from the adaptation of PSC to single-cell dissociation. By using new generation sequencing techniques as RNA-Seq, we compared transcriptomics of PSC passaged by standard techniques (such as mechanical passaging) versus single-cell enzymatic dissociation (such as TRyPLE-based single-cell passaging). This comparison showed that the most striking difference in the gene expression pattern between adapted and non adapted cells concerned the dramatic overexpression of RNAs from a recently discovered class: long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs).The aim of this thesis work was to determine to which extent some of these lncRNAs were functionally linked to adaptation of PSC. In order to address this matter, we first investigated in silico which lncRNAs were upregulated by single-cell dissociation, and after experimental validation of lncRNA candidates by molecular biology, we performed functional in vitro analysis (notably by siRNA-mediated loss of function) and sought their cellular localization in order to decipher their role in the cellular machinery and their level of implication. Beside this main project, other auxiliary projects were grafted. The observation of major changes in cell phenotype and behavior led to the investigation of the global mechanisms governing these modifications, underlining the potential role of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition provoked by single-cell dissociation. Finally, the global attractiveness of lncRNAs and the emergence of exponential documentation concerning non-coding RNAs prompted the writing of an extensive review and meta-analysis concerning the implications of lncRNAs during embryo development and in pluripotent stem cells.

La récidive et la progression métastatique du cancer du sein ne sont toujours pas curables. Le concept des cellules souches cancéreuses (CSC) pourrait apporter une explication à ces échecs. Les CSC résisteraient aux thérapies conventionnelles (chimiothérapies, radiothérapie) et seraient responsables de la rechute et de la progression du cancer. L'élimination des CSC semble être un pré-requis indispensable pour le traitement des patientes. L'identité et le destin des cellules souches sont finement régulés par des acteurs épigénétiques. Les travaux de cette thèse se sont intéressés aux conséquences de la dérégulation de deux acteurs épigénétiques en particulier : les enzymes HDAC et le long ARN non-codant Xist. Nous avons montré que la modulation épigénétique via l'inhibition des HDAC (HDACi) permet d'éliminer les CSC en induisant leur différenciation. Nous présentons une nouvelle stratégie thérapeutique pour le cancer du sein : la thérapie différenciante. Nous avons déterminé Xist comme étant le biomarqueur prédictif de la réponse aux HDACi. Xist étant un partenaire clé de la plasticité cellulaire, les travaux de cette thèse se sont ensuite intéressés aux conséquences de la dérégulation de Xist dans l'initiation tumorale. Nous avons observé que l'inhibition de Xist favorise la division des cellules souches mammaires normales. Nous proposons un nouveau modèle de l'initiation tumorale où la dérégulation épigénétique est une modification précoce sans conséquence sur l'homéostasie tissulaire mais pourrait être la première étape de la transformation cancéreuse. / These last decades have allowed deciphering the biology of breast cancer and improving the therapeutic management. However, recurrence and metastatic progression of the disease are still not curable. The concept of cancer stem cells (CSC) could provide an explanation for these failures. CSC would resist conventional therapies (chemotherapy, radiotherapy) and would be responsible for both relapse and progression of cancer. The elimination of CSC seems to be an essential prerequisite for the treatment of patients. The identity and fate of stem cells are tightly regulated by epigenetic mechanisms. The work of this thesis investigated the consequences of deregulation of two epigenetic players: HDAC enzymes and long non-coding RNA Xist. We have shown that epigenetic modulation via HDAC inhibitor (HDACi) eliminates the CSC by inducing their differentiation. We present a new therapeutic strategy for breast cancer: differentiation therapy. We determined Xist as the predictive biomarker of response to HDACi. Xist is a key partner of cell plasticity, the work of this thesis therefore interested in the consequences of Xist deregulation in tumor initiation. We observed that Xist inhibition promotes division of normal breast stem cells. We propose a new model of tumor initiation: epigenetic deregulation is an early change without consequence on tissue homeostasis but could be the first step of the cancerous transformation.

Chimpanzee is the closest living species to modern humans. Although the differences in phenotype are striking between these two species, the difference in genomic sequences is surprisingly small. Species specific changes and positive selection have been mostly found in proteins, but ncRNAs are also involved, including the largely uncharacterized class of long ncRNAs (lncRNAs). A notable example is the Human Accelerated Region 1 (HAR1), the region in the human genome with the highest number of human specific substitutions: 18 in 118 nucleotides. HAR1 is located in a pair of overlapping lncRNAs that are expressed in a crucial period for brain development. Importantly, structural rather then sequence constraints lead to evolution of many ncRNAs. Different methods have been developed for detecting negative selection in ncRNA structures, but none thus far for positive selection. This motivated us to develop a novel method: the SSS-test (Selection on the Secondary Structure test). This novel method uses an excess of structure changing changes as a means of identifying positive selection. This is done using reports from RNAsnp, a tool that quantifies the structural effect of SNPs on RNA structures, and by applying multiple correction on the observations to generate selection scores. Insertions and deletions (indels) are dealt with separately using rank statistics and a background model. The scores for SNPs and indels are combined to calculate a final selection score for each of the input sequences, indicating the type of selection. We benchmarked the SSS-test with biological and synthetic datasets, obtaining coherent signals. We then applied it to a lncRNA database and obtained a set of 110 human lncRNAs as candidates for having evolved under adaptive evolution in humans. Although lncRNAs have poor sequence conservation, they have conserved splice sites, which provide ideal guides for orthology annotation. To provide an alternative method for assigning orthology for lncRNAs, we developed the 'buildOrthologs' tool. It uses as input a map of ortholog splice sites created by the SpliceMap tool and applies a greedy algorithm to reconstruct valid ortholog transcripts. We applied this novel approach to create a well-curated catalog of lncRNA orthologs for primate species. Finally, to understand the structural evolution of ncRNAs in full detail, we added a temporal aspect to the analysis. What was the order of mutations of a structure since its origin? This is a combinatorial problem, in which the exact mutations between ancestral and extant sequences must be put in order. For this, we developed the 'mutationOrder' tool using dynamic programming. It calculates every possible order of mutations and assigns probabilities to every path. We applied this novel tool to HAR1 as a case study and saw that the co-optimal paths that are equally likely to have occured share qualitatively comparable features. In general, they lead to stabilization of the human structure since the ancestral. We propose that this stabilization was caused by adaptive evolution. With the new methods we developed and our analysis of primate databases, we gained new knowledge about adaptive evolution of human lncRNAs.