A coloração dos animais é uma característica que apresenta uma grande diversidade de fenótipos nas diferentes espécies. Diferentes abordagens podem ser utilizadas para o entendimento da diversidade na coloração existente nas espécies animais. Através da análise de genes candidatos as mutações responsáveis pela variação na coloração têm sido descritas em diferentes espécies, demonstrando o envolvimento de mecanismos moleculares variados na sua regulação. Este trabalho tem por objetivo a utilização de duas abordagens genéticas para o estudo da variação na coloração, a análise de genes candidatos e a predição computacional do efeito de polimorfismos não sinônimos. Em ovinos a coloração da lã é uma característica com importância na produção e para a identificação das raças. Polimorfismos em diferentes genes foram associados com a coloração da lã, entretanto, estes não foram estudados em muitas raças que apresentam variação fenotípica. A ovelha crioula é uma raça local existente no sul do Brasil que apresenta uma ampla diversidade de cores na lã, incluindo branco, preto e diversos tons intermediários. O gene receptor de melanocortina 1 (MC1R) foi previamente associado com a coloração na raça crioula, entretanto, outros genes também devem estar envolvidos na regulação da coloração na raça. Este trabalho avaliou a influência dos genes MC1R, ASIP (proteína sinalizadora agouti), TYRP1 (proteína relacionada à tirosinase 1) e KIT (homólogo do oncogene de sarcoma felino viral v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4) na coloração da lã na raça ovina crioula. Amostras de 410 animais de diferentes cores foram analisadas, sendo a variação na coloração da lã determinada por colorimetria. O padrão de herança dos fenótipos foi avaliado através de cruzamentos dirigidos entre indivíduos de diferentes cores. Os polimorfismos nos genes foram avaliados através da realização do sequenciamento e da análise de fragmentos e a quantificação da expressão do gene ASIP foi realizada por PCR em Tempo Real. Foi observada a associação significativa entre polimorfismos nos genes MC1R e ASIP e a cor da lã na raça crioula. O alelo dominante do gene MC1R, provocado pelas mutações p.M73K e p.D121N, foi encontrado apenas em indivíduos pigmentados. Este alelo resulta na ativação constitutiva do receptor, e consequentemente na produção constante de eumelanina, sendo epistático sobre o gene ASIP. Nos animais homozigotos para o alelo selvagem do MC1R a manifestação do fenótipo branco ocorreu somente nos portadores de um alelo contendo a duplicação do gene ASIP. Os portadores da duplicação do ASIP apresentaram níveis elevados de expressão do gene enquanto os homozigotos para a cópia simples do ASIP não expressaram o gene e apresentaram fenótipos pigmentados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram identificar a influência da interação epistática dos genes MC1R e ASIP na coloração da lã nos ovinos crioulos. O estudo de genes candidatos envolvidos na rota da pigmentação mostrou-se uma abordagem adequada para a análise da variação na coloração nestes animais. Espera-se que o conhecimento adquirido neste trabalho auxilie na criação e na preservação da raça através da manutenção da diversidade fenotípica existente. A avaliação computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos vem sendo utilizada recentemente a fim de determinar os SNPs que potencialmente afetam o funcionamento dos genes e identificar os mecanismos responsáveis por doenças complexas e pela variação nos fenótipos. A predição do efeito de polimorfismos nos genes utilizando ferramentas computacionais apresenta-se como uma abordagem alternativa para o estudo da genética da coloração. O gene MC1R humano apresenta uma grande quantidade de polimorfismos alguns dos quais foram associados com a variação na pigmentação e com suscetibilidade a tumores de pele. Entretanto, muitas das variações existentes no gene não foram avaliadas quanto às suas consequências funcionais e o seu papel na variação da pigmentação. Foi realizada a predição computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos no gene MC1R humano com o objetivo de identificar os nsSNPs mais provavelmente danosos, e estabelecer aqueles com potencial efeito na função do MC1R. Foram utilizadas 11 ferramentas de predição individuais (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO e SNAP) e dois programas consenso (PON-P e PredictSNP 1.0) para a análise de 92 nsSNPs localizados no gene. Os programas utilizados baseiam-se em métodos evolutivos, estruturais e computacionais, resultando na identificação dos 14 nsSNPs mais danosos (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R e R306H). Apesar das diferenças nos resultados de cada programa a combinação dos diferentes métodos permitiu diferenciar os polimorfismos neutros dos danosos, mostrando concordância com os programas consenso. A predição computacional demonstrou ser uma abordagem eficiente para a identificação dos alelos danosos no gene MC1R e para a priorização de mutações para posteriores estudos funcionais e populacionais. / Animal color is a characteristic that presents a large diversity of phenotypes. Different approaches can be used to understand the color diversity existing among and within species. Through analysis of candidate genes the mutations responsible for the color variation have been described in different species, showing the involvement of various molecular mechanisms of regulation. The objective of this work is the use of two genetic approaches to the study of color variation, the analysis of candidate genes and the computational prediction of non-synonym polymorphism effects (nsSNPs). In sheep the wool color is a feature with commercial importance and in identifying breeds. Polymorphisms in different genes have been associated with wool color, but they have not been studied in many breeds that show phenotypic variation regarding such a charactere. The Creole is a local breed from southern most Brazil that presents a wide range of wool color, varying from white to black, and including several intermediate hues. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) was previously associated with the wool color in the Creole, however, other genes might also be involved in the regulation of color in the breed. This study evaluated the influence of the genes MC1R, ASIP (agouti signaling protein), TYRP1 (tyrosinase related protein 1) and KIT (v-kit Hardy- Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) in the Creole breed wool color. Samples from 410 specimens of different colors were analyzed. The variation in the color of the wool was performed by colorimetry. The inheritance pattern of the phenotypes was assessed by crossbreeding individuals of different colors. Polymorphisms in the genes were evaluated by performing sequencing and fragment analysis, and the quantification of the ASIP gene expression was performed by Real Time-PCR. It was observed a significant association between polymorphisms in MC1R and ASIP gene and the wool color in Creole breed. The dominant allele of the MC1R gene, caused by p.M73K and p.D121N mutations was found only in pigmented individuals. This allele leads to the constitutive activation of the receptor and therefore in constant production of eumelanin and is epistatic on the ASIP gene. In the homozygous to the wild-type allele of MC1R the manifestation of white phenotype occurred only in individuals with one allele containing a duplication of the ASIP gene. The carriers of the duplicated copy of ASIP showed high levels of gene expression while homozygous for the simple copy of the ASIP did not expressed the gene, and showed pigmented phenotypes. The results allowed the identification of the influence of epistatic interaction of MC1R and ASIP gene in the wool color in Creole breed. The study of candidate genes involved in the pigmentation pathway proved to be a suitable approach for the analysis of variation in pigmentation in these animals. It is expected that the knowledge acquired in this work will assist on stablishment of commercial breeding and preservation policies of this sheep breed. The computational evaluation of non-synonymous polymorphism has been used to determine SNPs that potentially affect the function of the genes and identify the mechanisms responsible for complex diseases and by the variation in phenotypes. The prediction of the effect of polymorphisms in genes using computational tools presents an alternative approach to the study of the genetic of coloration. The human MC1R gene has a large number of know polymorphisms, some of which were associated with changes in pigmentation and susceptibility to skin tumors. However, many existing variations in the gene have not been evaluated regarding the functional consequences and its role in the variation of pigmentation. Computational prediction of nonsynonymous polymorphisms was performed in the human MC1R gene in order to identify the most likely harmful nsSNPs and to establish those with potential effect on the function of MC1R. Eleven individual tools (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO and SNAP) and two consensus programs (PON-P and PredictSNP 1.0) were used to the analysis of 92 nsSNPs located in the gene. The programs used are based in evolutionary, structural and computational methods, resulting in the identification of the 14 most damaging nsSNPs (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R and R306H). Despite the differences in the results of the each program the combination of different methods allowed the differentiation of the neutral polymorphisms from the most damaging, showing agreement with the consensus programs. The computational prediction has proved to be an efficient approach for the identification of harmful alleles in the MC1R gene and for the prioritization of mutations for further functional and population studies.

A coloração dos animais é uma característica que apresenta uma grande diversidade de fenótipos nas diferentes espécies. Diferentes abordagens podem ser utilizadas para o entendimento da diversidade na coloração existente nas espécies animais. Através da análise de genes candidatos as mutações responsáveis pela variação na coloração têm sido descritas em diferentes espécies, demonstrando o envolvimento de mecanismos moleculares variados na sua regulação. Este trabalho tem por objetivo a utilização de duas abordagens genéticas para o estudo da variação na coloração, a análise de genes candidatos e a predição computacional do efeito de polimorfismos não sinônimos. Em ovinos a coloração da lã é uma característica com importância na produção e para a identificação das raças. Polimorfismos em diferentes genes foram associados com a coloração da lã, entretanto, estes não foram estudados em muitas raças que apresentam variação fenotípica. A ovelha crioula é uma raça local existente no sul do Brasil que apresenta uma ampla diversidade de cores na lã, incluindo branco, preto e diversos tons intermediários. O gene receptor de melanocortina 1 (MC1R) foi previamente associado com a coloração na raça crioula, entretanto, outros genes também devem estar envolvidos na regulação da coloração na raça. Este trabalho avaliou a influência dos genes MC1R, ASIP (proteína sinalizadora agouti), TYRP1 (proteína relacionada à tirosinase 1) e KIT (homólogo do oncogene de sarcoma felino viral v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4) na coloração da lã na raça ovina crioula. Amostras de 410 animais de diferentes cores foram analisadas, sendo a variação na coloração da lã determinada por colorimetria. O padrão de herança dos fenótipos foi avaliado através de cruzamentos dirigidos entre indivíduos de diferentes cores. Os polimorfismos nos genes foram avaliados através da realização do sequenciamento e da análise de fragmentos e a quantificação da expressão do gene ASIP foi realizada por PCR em Tempo Real. Foi observada a associação significativa entre polimorfismos nos genes MC1R e ASIP e a cor da lã na raça crioula. O alelo dominante do gene MC1R, provocado pelas mutações p.M73K e p.D121N, foi encontrado apenas em indivíduos pigmentados. Este alelo resulta na ativação constitutiva do receptor, e consequentemente na produção constante de eumelanina, sendo epistático sobre o gene ASIP. Nos animais homozigotos para o alelo selvagem do MC1R a manifestação do fenótipo branco ocorreu somente nos portadores de um alelo contendo a duplicação do gene ASIP. Os portadores da duplicação do ASIP apresentaram níveis elevados de expressão do gene enquanto os homozigotos para a cópia simples do ASIP não expressaram o gene e apresentaram fenótipos pigmentados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram identificar a influência da interação epistática dos genes MC1R e ASIP na coloração da lã nos ovinos crioulos. O estudo de genes candidatos envolvidos na rota da pigmentação mostrou-se uma abordagem adequada para a análise da variação na coloração nestes animais. Espera-se que o conhecimento adquirido neste trabalho auxilie na criação e na preservação da raça através da manutenção da diversidade fenotípica existente. A avaliação computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos vem sendo utilizada recentemente a fim de determinar os SNPs que potencialmente afetam o funcionamento dos genes e identificar os mecanismos responsáveis por doenças complexas e pela variação nos fenótipos. A predição do efeito de polimorfismos nos genes utilizando ferramentas computacionais apresenta-se como uma abordagem alternativa para o estudo da genética da coloração. O gene MC1R humano apresenta uma grande quantidade de polimorfismos alguns dos quais foram associados com a variação na pigmentação e com suscetibilidade a tumores de pele. Entretanto, muitas das variações existentes no gene não foram avaliadas quanto às suas consequências funcionais e o seu papel na variação da pigmentação. Foi realizada a predição computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos no gene MC1R humano com o objetivo de identificar os nsSNPs mais provavelmente danosos, e estabelecer aqueles com potencial efeito na função do MC1R. Foram utilizadas 11 ferramentas de predição individuais (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO e SNAP) e dois programas consenso (PON-P e PredictSNP 1.0) para a análise de 92 nsSNPs localizados no gene. Os programas utilizados baseiam-se em métodos evolutivos, estruturais e computacionais, resultando na identificação dos 14 nsSNPs mais danosos (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R e R306H). Apesar das diferenças nos resultados de cada programa a combinação dos diferentes métodos permitiu diferenciar os polimorfismos neutros dos danosos, mostrando concordância com os programas consenso. A predição computacional demonstrou ser uma abordagem eficiente para a identificação dos alelos danosos no gene MC1R e para a priorização de mutações para posteriores estudos funcionais e populacionais. / Animal color is a characteristic that presents a large diversity of phenotypes. Different approaches can be used to understand the color diversity existing among and within species. Through analysis of candidate genes the mutations responsible for the color variation have been described in different species, showing the involvement of various molecular mechanisms of regulation. The objective of this work is the use of two genetic approaches to the study of color variation, the analysis of candidate genes and the computational prediction of non-synonym polymorphism effects (nsSNPs). In sheep the wool color is a feature with commercial importance and in identifying breeds. Polymorphisms in different genes have been associated with wool color, but they have not been studied in many breeds that show phenotypic variation regarding such a charactere. The Creole is a local breed from southern most Brazil that presents a wide range of wool color, varying from white to black, and including several intermediate hues. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) was previously associated with the wool color in the Creole, however, other genes might also be involved in the regulation of color in the breed. This study evaluated the influence of the genes MC1R, ASIP (agouti signaling protein), TYRP1 (tyrosinase related protein 1) and KIT (v-kit Hardy- Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) in the Creole breed wool color. Samples from 410 specimens of different colors were analyzed. The variation in the color of the wool was performed by colorimetry. The inheritance pattern of the phenotypes was assessed by crossbreeding individuals of different colors. Polymorphisms in the genes were evaluated by performing sequencing and fragment analysis, and the quantification of the ASIP gene expression was performed by Real Time-PCR. It was observed a significant association between polymorphisms in MC1R and ASIP gene and the wool color in Creole breed. The dominant allele of the MC1R gene, caused by p.M73K and p.D121N mutations was found only in pigmented individuals. This allele leads to the constitutive activation of the receptor and therefore in constant production of eumelanin and is epistatic on the ASIP gene. In the homozygous to the wild-type allele of MC1R the manifestation of white phenotype occurred only in individuals with one allele containing a duplication of the ASIP gene. The carriers of the duplicated copy of ASIP showed high levels of gene expression while homozygous for the simple copy of the ASIP did not expressed the gene, and showed pigmented phenotypes. The results allowed the identification of the influence of epistatic interaction of MC1R and ASIP gene in the wool color in Creole breed. The study of candidate genes involved in the pigmentation pathway proved to be a suitable approach for the analysis of variation in pigmentation in these animals. It is expected that the knowledge acquired in this work will assist on stablishment of commercial breeding and preservation policies of this sheep breed. The computational evaluation of non-synonymous polymorphism has been used to determine SNPs that potentially affect the function of the genes and identify the mechanisms responsible for complex diseases and by the variation in phenotypes. The prediction of the effect of polymorphisms in genes using computational tools presents an alternative approach to the study of the genetic of coloration. The human MC1R gene has a large number of know polymorphisms, some of which were associated with changes in pigmentation and susceptibility to skin tumors. However, many existing variations in the gene have not been evaluated regarding the functional consequences and its role in the variation of pigmentation. Computational prediction of nonsynonymous polymorphisms was performed in the human MC1R gene in order to identify the most likely harmful nsSNPs and to establish those with potential effect on the function of MC1R. Eleven individual tools (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO and SNAP) and two consensus programs (PON-P and PredictSNP 1.0) were used to the analysis of 92 nsSNPs located in the gene. The programs used are based in evolutionary, structural and computational methods, resulting in the identification of the 14 most damaging nsSNPs (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R and R306H). Despite the differences in the results of the each program the combination of different methods allowed the differentiation of the neutral polymorphisms from the most damaging, showing agreement with the consensus programs. The computational prediction has proved to be an efficient approach for the identification of harmful alleles in the MC1R gene and for the prioritization of mutations for further functional and population studies.

A coloração dos animais é uma característica que apresenta uma grande diversidade de fenótipos nas diferentes espécies. Diferentes abordagens podem ser utilizadas para o entendimento da diversidade na coloração existente nas espécies animais. Através da análise de genes candidatos as mutações responsáveis pela variação na coloração têm sido descritas em diferentes espécies, demonstrando o envolvimento de mecanismos moleculares variados na sua regulação. Este trabalho tem por objetivo a utilização de duas abordagens genéticas para o estudo da variação na coloração, a análise de genes candidatos e a predição computacional do efeito de polimorfismos não sinônimos. Em ovinos a coloração da lã é uma característica com importância na produção e para a identificação das raças. Polimorfismos em diferentes genes foram associados com a coloração da lã, entretanto, estes não foram estudados em muitas raças que apresentam variação fenotípica. A ovelha crioula é uma raça local existente no sul do Brasil que apresenta uma ampla diversidade de cores na lã, incluindo branco, preto e diversos tons intermediários. O gene receptor de melanocortina 1 (MC1R) foi previamente associado com a coloração na raça crioula, entretanto, outros genes também devem estar envolvidos na regulação da coloração na raça. Este trabalho avaliou a influência dos genes MC1R, ASIP (proteína sinalizadora agouti), TYRP1 (proteína relacionada à tirosinase 1) e KIT (homólogo do oncogene de sarcoma felino viral v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4) na coloração da lã na raça ovina crioula. Amostras de 410 animais de diferentes cores foram analisadas, sendo a variação na coloração da lã determinada por colorimetria. O padrão de herança dos fenótipos foi avaliado através de cruzamentos dirigidos entre indivíduos de diferentes cores. Os polimorfismos nos genes foram avaliados através da realização do sequenciamento e da análise de fragmentos e a quantificação da expressão do gene ASIP foi realizada por PCR em Tempo Real. Foi observada a associação significativa entre polimorfismos nos genes MC1R e ASIP e a cor da lã na raça crioula. O alelo dominante do gene MC1R, provocado pelas mutações p.M73K e p.D121N, foi encontrado apenas em indivíduos pigmentados. Este alelo resulta na ativação constitutiva do receptor, e consequentemente na produção constante de eumelanina, sendo epistático sobre o gene ASIP. Nos animais homozigotos para o alelo selvagem do MC1R a manifestação do fenótipo branco ocorreu somente nos portadores de um alelo contendo a duplicação do gene ASIP. Os portadores da duplicação do ASIP apresentaram níveis elevados de expressão do gene enquanto os homozigotos para a cópia simples do ASIP não expressaram o gene e apresentaram fenótipos pigmentados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram identificar a influência da interação epistática dos genes MC1R e ASIP na coloração da lã nos ovinos crioulos. O estudo de genes candidatos envolvidos na rota da pigmentação mostrou-se uma abordagem adequada para a análise da variação na coloração nestes animais. Espera-se que o conhecimento adquirido neste trabalho auxilie na criação e na preservação da raça através da manutenção da diversidade fenotípica existente. A avaliação computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos vem sendo utilizada recentemente a fim de determinar os SNPs que potencialmente afetam o funcionamento dos genes e identificar os mecanismos responsáveis por doenças complexas e pela variação nos fenótipos. A predição do efeito de polimorfismos nos genes utilizando ferramentas computacionais apresenta-se como uma abordagem alternativa para o estudo da genética da coloração. O gene MC1R humano apresenta uma grande quantidade de polimorfismos alguns dos quais foram associados com a variação na pigmentação e com suscetibilidade a tumores de pele. Entretanto, muitas das variações existentes no gene não foram avaliadas quanto às suas consequências funcionais e o seu papel na variação da pigmentação. Foi realizada a predição computacional dos polimorfismos não sinônimos no gene MC1R humano com o objetivo de identificar os nsSNPs mais provavelmente danosos, e estabelecer aqueles com potencial efeito na função do MC1R. Foram utilizadas 11 ferramentas de predição individuais (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO e SNAP) e dois programas consenso (PON-P e PredictSNP 1.0) para a análise de 92 nsSNPs localizados no gene. Os programas utilizados baseiam-se em métodos evolutivos, estruturais e computacionais, resultando na identificação dos 14 nsSNPs mais danosos (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R e R306H). Apesar das diferenças nos resultados de cada programa a combinação dos diferentes métodos permitiu diferenciar os polimorfismos neutros dos danosos, mostrando concordância com os programas consenso. A predição computacional demonstrou ser uma abordagem eficiente para a identificação dos alelos danosos no gene MC1R e para a priorização de mutações para posteriores estudos funcionais e populacionais. / Animal color is a characteristic that presents a large diversity of phenotypes. Different approaches can be used to understand the color diversity existing among and within species. Through analysis of candidate genes the mutations responsible for the color variation have been described in different species, showing the involvement of various molecular mechanisms of regulation. The objective of this work is the use of two genetic approaches to the study of color variation, the analysis of candidate genes and the computational prediction of non-synonym polymorphism effects (nsSNPs). In sheep the wool color is a feature with commercial importance and in identifying breeds. Polymorphisms in different genes have been associated with wool color, but they have not been studied in many breeds that show phenotypic variation regarding such a charactere. The Creole is a local breed from southern most Brazil that presents a wide range of wool color, varying from white to black, and including several intermediate hues. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) was previously associated with the wool color in the Creole, however, other genes might also be involved in the regulation of color in the breed. This study evaluated the influence of the genes MC1R, ASIP (agouti signaling protein), TYRP1 (tyrosinase related protein 1) and KIT (v-kit Hardy- Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) in the Creole breed wool color. Samples from 410 specimens of different colors were analyzed. The variation in the color of the wool was performed by colorimetry. The inheritance pattern of the phenotypes was assessed by crossbreeding individuals of different colors. Polymorphisms in the genes were evaluated by performing sequencing and fragment analysis, and the quantification of the ASIP gene expression was performed by Real Time-PCR. It was observed a significant association between polymorphisms in MC1R and ASIP gene and the wool color in Creole breed. The dominant allele of the MC1R gene, caused by p.M73K and p.D121N mutations was found only in pigmented individuals. This allele leads to the constitutive activation of the receptor and therefore in constant production of eumelanin and is epistatic on the ASIP gene. In the homozygous to the wild-type allele of MC1R the manifestation of white phenotype occurred only in individuals with one allele containing a duplication of the ASIP gene. The carriers of the duplicated copy of ASIP showed high levels of gene expression while homozygous for the simple copy of the ASIP did not expressed the gene, and showed pigmented phenotypes. The results allowed the identification of the influence of epistatic interaction of MC1R and ASIP gene in the wool color in Creole breed. The study of candidate genes involved in the pigmentation pathway proved to be a suitable approach for the analysis of variation in pigmentation in these animals. It is expected that the knowledge acquired in this work will assist on stablishment of commercial breeding and preservation policies of this sheep breed. The computational evaluation of non-synonymous polymorphism has been used to determine SNPs that potentially affect the function of the genes and identify the mechanisms responsible for complex diseases and by the variation in phenotypes. The prediction of the effect of polymorphisms in genes using computational tools presents an alternative approach to the study of the genetic of coloration. The human MC1R gene has a large number of know polymorphisms, some of which were associated with changes in pigmentation and susceptibility to skin tumors. However, many existing variations in the gene have not been evaluated regarding the functional consequences and its role in the variation of pigmentation. Computational prediction of nonsynonymous polymorphisms was performed in the human MC1R gene in order to identify the most likely harmful nsSNPs and to establish those with potential effect on the function of MC1R. Eleven individual tools (SIFT, MutPred, Polyphen-2, PROVEAN, I-Mutant 3.0, PANTHER, SNPs3D, Mutation Assessor, PhD-SNP, SNPs&GO and SNAP) and two consensus programs (PON-P and PredictSNP 1.0) were used to the analysis of 92 nsSNPs located in the gene. The programs used are based in evolutionary, structural and computational methods, resulting in the identification of the 14 most damaging nsSNPs (L48P, R67W, H70Y, P72L, S83P, R151H, S172I, L206P, T242I, G255R, P256S, C273Y, C289R and R306H). Despite the differences in the results of the each program the combination of different methods allowed the differentiation of the neutral polymorphisms from the most damaging, showing agreement with the consensus programs. The computational prediction has proved to be an efficient approach for the identification of harmful alleles in the MC1R gene and for the prioritization of mutations for further functional and population studies.

No description available.

A coloração dos vertebrados deve-se a presença de pigmentos, sintetizados e/ou armazenados em células denominadas células pigmentares cutâneas. A mudança de cor nos vertebrados é principalmente regulada por α-MSH e uma família de enzimas melanossômicas, que incluem tirosinase e as proteínas relacionadas à tirosinase 1 e 2 (TRP-1 e TRP-2, respectivamente). Sua ação está ligada à dispersão dos melanossomos ou síntese de melanina, processos que resultam em escurecimento do animal, enquanto a agregação ou inibição de síntese leva ao seu empalidecimento. Opsinas, como a melanopsina e a rodopsina, além de presentes na retina, podem ser expressas em células pigmentares cutâneas, intermediando foto-respostas de proliferação e de dispersão de melanossomos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a expressão temporal da rodopsina, tirosinase e do receptor MC1R, bem como os efeitos do tratamento com α-MSH 10-7 M, 10-8 M e 10-9 M por 24 horas sobre esses parâmetros, em melanócitos B16 de Mus musculus, mantidos em escuro constante. Através de PCR em tempo real (quantitativo) demonstrou-se que α-MSH 10-7 M não modula os níveis de mRNA para o receptor MC1R quando comparado com o grupo controle, contudo há uma evidente tendência de redução dos níveis do transcrito. Todavia, na concentração de 10-8 M, observou-se um aumento estatisticamente significativo no nível do transcrito na hora 20 quando comparado ao grupo controle e na concentração de 10-9 M o tratamento mostrou uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa no nível do transcrito entre o grupo controle e o tratado para cada ponto temporal analisado. Para a rodopsina, foi demonstrado que &alpha-MSH 10-7 M modula os níveis do mRNA quando comparado ao grupo controle, mostrando uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa na hora 0 e 16. Na concentração de 10-8 M houve um aumento estatisticamente significativo nos níveis do transcrito na hora 4 quando comparado ao grupo controle. Já, na concentração de 10-9 M, o hormônio induziu um robusto aumento no nível do transcrito quando comparado ao grupo controle para cada ponto temporal analisado. Nossos resultados são pioneiros em demonstrar a modulação de rodopsina por α-MSH, pois não há dados na literatura, seja em retina ou em outros tecidos, que tenham investigado essa ação do hormônio melanotrópico. O mesmo padrão foi observado para a tirosinase, demonstrando uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa na concentração de 10-7 M na hora 0 e um aumento significativo na concentração de 10-8 M na hora 8 e na concentração de 10-9 M na hora 12 e 8. Através de PCR em tempo real (quantitavo) nós demonstramos que α-MSH apresenta uma modulação dose-dependente para o transcrito do mRNA do receptor MC1R, tirosinase e rodopsina, mas não sincronizou a expressão desses genes, que permaneceram arrítmicos / In vertebrates, skin color is given by pigments, synthesized and/or stored in cutaneous pigment cells. The vertebrate color change is mainly regulated by α-MSH and a family of melanosome enzymes, which includes tyrosinase and tyrosinaserelated proteins 1 and 2 (TRP-1 and TRP-2, respectively). α-MSH action is associated with melanosome dispersion or melanin synthesis, processes which lead to skin darkening, whereas melanin aggregation or synthesis inhibition results in skin lightening. Opsins, such as melanopsin and rhodopsin, may be expressed in skin pigment cells, besides being present in the retina, and mediate non visual photoresponses such as cell proliferation and melanosome dispersion. The aim of this study was to investigate the temporal expression of rhodopsin, tyrosinase and the receptor MC1R, as well as the effects of 10-7 M, 10-8 M and 10-9 M α-MSH for 24 hours in Mus musculus B16 melanocytes, kept in constant darkness. Using real time PCR (quantitative) we demonstrated that 10-7 M α-MSH does not modulate MC1R mRNA levels, as compared to the control group, although a tendency to reduction was evident. On the other hand, at the concentration of 10-8 M, we observed a statistically significant increase of the transcript level at the hour 20, as compared to the control group and at the concentration of 10-9 M the treatment showed a statistically significant decrease of the transcript level for each temporal point analyzed. For rhodopsin, we showed that 10-7 M α-MSH modulates mRNA levels, as compared to the control group, demonstrating a statistically significant decrease at the hour 0 and 16. At the concentration of 10-8 M there was a statistically significant increase of transcript levels at the hour 4, as compared to the control group. The hormone at 10-9 M induced a robust increase of the transcript levels, as compared to the control group, for each time point analyzed. Our results are pioneering in demonstrating the regulation of rhodopsin by α-MSH, since there are no data in the literature which report the action of melanotropic hormone on rhodopsin in either the retina or other tissues. Similar pattern was observed for the tyrosinase gene, demonstrating a statistically significant decrease in the concentration of 10-7 M at the hour 0 and a significant increase in the concentration of 10-8 M at the hour 8 and in the concentration of the 10-9 M at the hour 12 and 8. Using real time PCR (quantitative) we demonstrated that α-MSH shows a dose-dependent modulation for mRNA transcripts of the MC1R receptor, tyrosinase and rhodopsin, but the hormone was not able to synchronize the expression of these genes, which remained arhythmic

<p>In this thesis techniques are presented that aim to determine individual DNA signatures by controlled synthesis of nucleic acid multimers. Allele-specific extension reactions with an improved specificity were applied for several genomic purposes. Since DNA polymerases extend some mismatched 3’-end primers, an improved specificity is a concern. This has been possible by exploiting the faster extension of matched primers and applying the enzymes apyrase or Proteinase K. The findings were applied to methods for resequencing and viral and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping.</p><p>P53 mutation is the most frequent event in human cancers. Here, a model system for resequencing of 15 bps in p53 based on apyrase-mediated allele-specific extension (AMASE) is described, investigated and evaluated (Paper I). A microarray format with fluorescence detection was used. On each array, four oligonucleotides were printed for each base to resequence. Target PCR products were hybridized and an AMASE-reaction performed in situ to distinguish which of the printed oligonucleotides matched the target. The results showed that without the inclusion of apyrase, the resulting sequence was unreadable. The results open the possibilities for developing large-scale resequencing tools.</p><p>The presence of certain types of human papillomaviruses (HPV) transforms normal cells into cervical cancer cells. Thus, HPV type determination is clinically important. Also, multiple HPV infections are common but difficult to distinguish. Therefore, a genotyping platform based on competitive hybridization and AMASE is described, used on clinical sample material and evaluated by comparison to Sanger DNA sequencing (Papers II and III). A flexible tag-microarray was used for detection and the two levels of discrimination gave a high level of specificity. Easy identification of multiple infections was possible which provides new opportunities to investigate the importance of multiply infected samples.</p><p>To achieve highly multiplexed allele-specific extension reactions, large numbers of primers will be employed and lead to spurious hybridizations. Papers IV to VI focus on an alternative approach to control oligomerization by using protease mediated allele-specific extension (PrASE). In order to maintain stringency at higher temperatures, Proteinase K, was used instead of apyrase, leading to DNA polymerase degradation and preventing unspecific extensions. An automated assay with tag-array detection for SNP genotyping was established. First PrASE was introduced and characterized (Paper IV), then used for genotyping of 10 SNPs in 442 samples (Paper V). A 99.8 % concordance to pyrosequencing was found. PrASE is a flexible tool for association studies and the results indicate an improved assay conversion rate as compared to plain allele-specific extension.</p><p>The highly polymorphic melanocortin-1 receptor gene (MC1R) is involved in melanogenesis. Twenty-one MC1R variants were genotyped with PrASE since variants in the gene have been associated to an increased risk of developing melanoma. A pilot study was performed to establish the assay (Paper VI) and subsequently a larger study was executed to investigate allele frequencies in the Swedish population (Paper VII). The case and control groups consisted of 1001 and 721 samples respectively. A two to sevenfold increased risk of developing melanoma was observed for carriers of variants.</p>

In this thesis techniques are presented that aim to determine individual DNA signatures by controlled synthesis of nucleic acid multimers. Allele-specific extension reactions with an improved specificity were applied for several genomic purposes. Since DNA polymerases extend some mismatched 3’-end primers, an improved specificity is a concern. This has been possible by exploiting the faster extension of matched primers and applying the enzymes apyrase or Proteinase K. The findings were applied to methods for resequencing and viral and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. P53 mutation is the most frequent event in human cancers. Here, a model system for resequencing of 15 bps in p53 based on apyrase-mediated allele-specific extension (AMASE) is described, investigated and evaluated (Paper I). A microarray format with fluorescence detection was used. On each array, four oligonucleotides were printed for each base to resequence. Target PCR products were hybridized and an AMASE-reaction performed in situ to distinguish which of the printed oligonucleotides matched the target. The results showed that without the inclusion of apyrase, the resulting sequence was unreadable. The results open the possibilities for developing large-scale resequencing tools. The presence of certain types of human papillomaviruses (HPV) transforms normal cells into cervical cancer cells. Thus, HPV type determination is clinically important. Also, multiple HPV infections are common but difficult to distinguish. Therefore, a genotyping platform based on competitive hybridization and AMASE is described, used on clinical sample material and evaluated by comparison to Sanger DNA sequencing (Papers II and III). A flexible tag-microarray was used for detection and the two levels of discrimination gave a high level of specificity. Easy identification of multiple infections was possible which provides new opportunities to investigate the importance of multiply infected samples. To achieve highly multiplexed allele-specific extension reactions, large numbers of primers will be employed and lead to spurious hybridizations. Papers IV to VI focus on an alternative approach to control oligomerization by using protease mediated allele-specific extension (PrASE). In order to maintain stringency at higher temperatures, Proteinase K, was used instead of apyrase, leading to DNA polymerase degradation and preventing unspecific extensions. An automated assay with tag-array detection for SNP genotyping was established. First PrASE was introduced and characterized (Paper IV), then used for genotyping of 10 SNPs in 442 samples (Paper V). A 99.8 % concordance to pyrosequencing was found. PrASE is a flexible tool for association studies and the results indicate an improved assay conversion rate as compared to plain allele-specific extension. The highly polymorphic melanocortin-1 receptor gene (MC1R) is involved in melanogenesis. Twenty-one MC1R variants were genotyped with PrASE since variants in the gene have been associated to an increased risk of developing melanoma. A pilot study was performed to establish the assay (Paper VI) and subsequently a larger study was executed to investigate allele frequencies in the Swedish population (Paper VII). The case and control groups consisted of 1001 and 721 samples respectively. A two to sevenfold increased risk of developing melanoma was observed for carriers of variants. / QC 20101028

A coloração dos vertebrados deve-se a presença de pigmentos, sintetizados e/ou armazenados em células denominadas células pigmentares cutâneas. A mudança de cor nos vertebrados é principalmente regulada por &alpha;-MSH e uma família de enzimas melanossômicas, que incluem tirosinase e as proteínas relacionadas à tirosinase 1 e 2 (TRP-1 e TRP-2, respectivamente). Sua ação está ligada à dispersão dos melanossomos ou síntese de melanina, processos que resultam em escurecimento do animal, enquanto a agregação ou inibição de síntese leva ao seu empalidecimento. Opsinas, como a melanopsina e a rodopsina, além de presentes na retina, podem ser expressas em células pigmentares cutâneas, intermediando foto-respostas de proliferação e de dispersão de melanossomos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a expressão temporal da rodopsina, tirosinase e do receptor MC1R, bem como os efeitos do tratamento com &alpha;-MSH 10-7 M, 10-8 M e 10-9 M por 24 horas sobre esses parâmetros, em melanócitos B16 de Mus musculus, mantidos em escuro constante. Através de PCR em tempo real (quantitativo) demonstrou-se que &alpha;-MSH 10-7 M não modula os níveis de mRNA para o receptor MC1R quando comparado com o grupo controle, contudo há uma evidente tendência de redução dos níveis do transcrito. Todavia, na concentração de 10-8 M, observou-se um aumento estatisticamente significativo no nível do transcrito na hora 20 quando comparado ao grupo controle e na concentração de 10-9 M o tratamento mostrou uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa no nível do transcrito entre o grupo controle e o tratado para cada ponto temporal analisado. Para a rodopsina, foi demonstrado que &alpha-MSH 10-7 M modula os níveis do mRNA quando comparado ao grupo controle, mostrando uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa na hora 0 e 16. Na concentração de 10-8 M houve um aumento estatisticamente significativo nos níveis do transcrito na hora 4 quando comparado ao grupo controle. Já, na concentração de 10-9 M, o hormônio induziu um robusto aumento no nível do transcrito quando comparado ao grupo controle para cada ponto temporal analisado. Nossos resultados são pioneiros em demonstrar a modulação de rodopsina por &alpha;-MSH, pois não há dados na literatura, seja em retina ou em outros tecidos, que tenham investigado essa ação do hormônio melanotrópico. O mesmo padrão foi observado para a tirosinase, demonstrando uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa na concentração de 10-7 M na hora 0 e um aumento significativo na concentração de 10-8 M na hora 8 e na concentração de 10-9 M na hora 12 e 8. Através de PCR em tempo real (quantitavo) nós demonstramos que &alpha;-MSH apresenta uma modulação dose-dependente para o transcrito do mRNA do receptor MC1R, tirosinase e rodopsina, mas não sincronizou a expressão desses genes, que permaneceram arrítmicos / In vertebrates, skin color is given by pigments, synthesized and/or stored in cutaneous pigment cells. The vertebrate color change is mainly regulated by &alpha;-MSH and a family of melanosome enzymes, which includes tyrosinase and tyrosinaserelated proteins 1 and 2 (TRP-1 and TRP-2, respectively). &alpha;-MSH action is associated with melanosome dispersion or melanin synthesis, processes which lead to skin darkening, whereas melanin aggregation or synthesis inhibition results in skin lightening. Opsins, such as melanopsin and rhodopsin, may be expressed in skin pigment cells, besides being present in the retina, and mediate non visual photoresponses such as cell proliferation and melanosome dispersion. The aim of this study was to investigate the temporal expression of rhodopsin, tyrosinase and the receptor MC1R, as well as the effects of 10-7 M, 10-8 M and 10-9 M &alpha;-MSH for 24 hours in Mus musculus B16 melanocytes, kept in constant darkness. Using real time PCR (quantitative) we demonstrated that 10-7 M &alpha;-MSH does not modulate MC1R mRNA levels, as compared to the control group, although a tendency to reduction was evident. On the other hand, at the concentration of 10-8 M, we observed a statistically significant increase of the transcript level at the hour 20, as compared to the control group and at the concentration of 10-9 M the treatment showed a statistically significant decrease of the transcript level for each temporal point analyzed. For rhodopsin, we showed that 10-7 M &alpha;-MSH modulates mRNA levels, as compared to the control group, demonstrating a statistically significant decrease at the hour 0 and 16. At the concentration of 10-8 M there was a statistically significant increase of transcript levels at the hour 4, as compared to the control group. The hormone at 10-9 M induced a robust increase of the transcript levels, as compared to the control group, for each time point analyzed. Our results are pioneering in demonstrating the regulation of rhodopsin by &alpha;-MSH, since there are no data in the literature which report the action of melanotropic hormone on rhodopsin in either the retina or other tissues. Similar pattern was observed for the tyrosinase gene, demonstrating a statistically significant decrease in the concentration of 10-7 M at the hour 0 and a significant increase in the concentration of 10-8 M at the hour 8 and in the concentration of the 10-9 M at the hour 12 and 8. Using real time PCR (quantitative) we demonstrated that &alpha;-MSH shows a dose-dependent modulation for mRNA transcripts of the MC1R receptor, tyrosinase and rhodopsin, but the hormone was not able to synchronize the expression of these genes, which remained arhythmic

Many previous studies in evolutionary genetics have been based on few model organisms that can be reared at ease in the laboratory. In contrast, genetic studies of non-model, natural populations are desirable as they provide a wider range of adaptive phenotypes throughout evolutionary timescales and allow a more realistic understanding of how natural selection drives adaptive evolution. This thesis represents an example of how modern genomic tools can be effectively used to study adaptation in natural populations. Atlantic herring is one of the world’s most numerous fish having multiple populations with phenotypic differences adapted to strikingly different environments. Our study demonstrated insignificant level of genetic drift in herring that resulted in minute genetic differences in the majority of the genome among these populations. In contrast, a small percentage of the loci showed striking genetic differentiation that were potentially under natural selection. We identified loci associated with adaptation to the Baltic Sea and with seasonal reproduction (spring- and autumn-spawning) and demonstrated that ecological adaptation in Atlantic herring is highly polygenic but controlled by a finite number of loci. The study of Darwin’s finches constitutes a breakthrough in characterizing their evolution. We identified two loci, ALX1 and HMGA2, which most likely are the two most prominent loci that contributed to beak diversification and thereby to expanded food utilization. These loci have played a key role in adaptive evolution of Darwin’s finches. Our study also demonstrated that interspecies gene flow played a significant role in the radiation of Darwin’s finches and some species have a mixed ancestry. This thesis also explored the genetic basis for the remarkable phenotypic differences between three male morphs in the ruff. Identification of two different versions of a 4.5 MB inversion in Satellites and Faeders that occurred about 4 million years ago revealed clues about the genetic foundation of male mating strategies in ruff. We highlighted two genes in the inverted region; HSD17B2 that affects metabolism of testosterone and MC1R that has a key role in regulating pigmentation, as the major loci associated with this adaptation.

<p>The purpose of gene mapping is to understand the underlying genetics of simple and complex traits like plumage colour and growth. This thesis is based on a cross between the wild ancestor of the modern chicken, the red junglefowl, and a White Leghorn line selected for high egg mass. There are obvious phenotypic differences between these two breeds in several aspects such as growth, egg production and behaviour. These complex traits are often influenced by a number of genes or Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) as well as environmental factors.</p><p>Identification of QTL regions involves testing of association between genetic markers and the phenotype of interest. The QTL identified in this study explain most of the difference in adult body weight between the red junglefowl and the White Leghorn, but less of the difference at earlier age. By applying a different method for detection of QTL, including gene interactions, epistasis, we can understand more of the genetics behind early growth. The allele coming from the red junglefowl is generally associated with lower weight, egg production and food consumption.</p><p>In this study we have also identified two genes explaining the difference in plumage colour in the cross. The <i>Extension</i> locus, encoded by the melanocortin receptor 1 (<i>MC1R</i>), controls the amount of pigment produced has shown to be associated with plumage colour. A mutation in the <i>MC1R</i> gene causes black pigmentation of the plumage. </p><p>We have also found association between the <i>PMEL17</i> gene, known to be involved in normal pigmentation, and the <i>Dominant white</i> phenotype present in the White Leghorn. After comparison of sequences from different alleles at the <i>Dominant white</i> locus, amino acid alteration caused by insertion and deletion in the transmembrane region of the <i>PMEL17</i> protein has been revealed. These mutations are associated with alleles representing different plumage colour variants.</p>