Scientists started to study the relationship between changing weather patterns and the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other harmful gasses. They soon discovered compelling evidence that CO2 concentration and other gases have been increasing and it was causing temperatures to increase in certain areas on the earth, which disturb historic weather patterns. Climate change has become a very popular field of study in the modern science. Europe first introduced measures to reduce carbon emissions but it was the Kyoto in 1997 where global leaders were asked to participate in a joint protocol to reduce greenhouse gases. South Africa responded to climate change challenges in 2008 with the Long term Mitigation Scenarios (LTMS). The Integrated Resource Plan for electricity to 2030 was developed from the LTMS scenarios and after some major amendments it was accepted and promulgated by Government and has recently been included in the National Development Plan to 2030 (NDP). There are concerns about the achievability of some of the objectives listed in the NDP and this study explored the IRP2010 as the proposed strategy to meet energy demand and reduce emissions. The purpose for this study was to answer this question: Is there an optimum climate change mitigation strategy for South Africa and how can the effect thereof be simulated on economic growth? Through primary and secondary research during the study it was possible to define some 32 categories of energy producing assets that are commercially active or nearly market-ready. The characteristics of the various assets and the relevant fuel are defined in mathematical equations. It was found that the three portfolios that matched the 450TWh electricity requirement would perform substantially better than the NDP portfolio in terms of cost and similar on emissions with marginally fewer employment opportunities created. The proposed electricity strategy in this study was 390TWh and 33.5 Million tonnes of oil consumption by 2030. This strategy was substantially more affordable than the 450TWh strategy. Trends in the Supply and Use tables since 1993 were studied and then forecasted to 2030 to determine consumption levels on electricity and liquid fuel into the future. It was found that electricity demand is seriously overestimated and South Africa would end up with large excess capacity in electricity infrastructures if the NDP energy strategy (IRP2010) is implemented. It is concluded that the NDP energy strategy to 2030 is based on an incorrect electricity demand forecast. It would lead to excessive investment in an electricity infrastructure. Government has confirmed that part of the new infrastructure would be nuclear. It is also found that NDP has not clearly supported nuclear as part of the strategy. Nuclear is partly the reason why the capital requirement of the NDP portfolio is so much higher than the other portfolios. It is the conclusion of this study that South Africa do not need to invest in a nuclear build programme as the electricity demand would be adequately covered by adding the new Medupi and Kusile power stations, Ingula pump storage scheme, some wind and solar renewables, electricity from cogeneration, biogas, biomass, small hydro and imported hydro from neighbour countries. To invest in electricity capacity to generate 450TWh annually by 2030 would result in excessive energy cost, GDP growth could be up to 1% lower due to underperforming capital investments in the electricity infrastructure and higher energy cost would lead to a decline in global competitiveness.

Microalgae are promising candidates for biofuel production, CO2 biomitigation, and production of a variety of value-added products. However, high production costs and large energy consumption have been a major concern hindering the commercialization of microalgal products and processes. In addition, biological contamination and oxygen stress are two of the major contributors to these challenges. The objective of this project was twofold: 1) developing a novel strategy for control of biological contamination to enable non-sterile cultivation of microalgae such as N. oleoabundans, and 2) developing advanced deoxygenation mechanisms to reduce oxygen accumulation in the culture. It was found that addition of appropriate amount of NaHCO3 could effectively inhibit the growth of protozoa while its inhibition on microalgae was much less and could be alleviated by increasing pH to an appropriate level. It was also found that adding 160 mM NaHCO3 in media or decreasing incident light intensity to 100 W/m2 would help alleviate the oxidative stress to cells at 400% of air saturation. The feasibility of contamination-free non-sterile cultivation of freshwater green alga N. oleoabundans was verified using long-term continuous cultivation in a 15-liter TPBR with non-sterile medium and aeration. Furthermore, localized oxygen removal using hydrophobic hollow membranes was found to effectively reduce dO2 and increase lipid accumulation. These results have the potential to be translated into low-cost cultivation of freshwater microalgae processes for production of value-added microalgal products. At a more fundamental level, the mechanisms of the inhibition of NaHCO3 on microalgae and protozoa were discussed. Efforts were also made to simulate the effects of incident light intensity on light distribution, cell growth kinetics, and lipid accumulation of N. oleoabundans under non- sterile cultivation conditions.

Natural disasters usually occur without any warning. They can leave trail of destruction and cause much tragedy. We are at a time when we witness fast technological advances; hence, we need to apply the force of scientific advancements to decrease economic losses and the number of human deaths. Tsunami is one of the extreme environmental events that leaves nothing but a path of death and destruction, and as a result, it is essential to understand this phenomenon and identify the mitigation strategies. Several mitigation strategies have been proposed so far; however, more investigations are still required to achieve an acceptable solution. Researchers around the world are studying different aspects of this phenomenon. One of the proposed solutions that has received much attention is designing tsunami-resistant structures which can withstand the force of a tsunami bore. Various studies have been done so far to understand the base shear force of tsunami bore on structures. The focus of this thesis is to improve and better understand the characteristics of the tsunami base shear forces on structures. Hence, in this thesis, two numerical studies were proposed and performed with the main goal of estimating the total tsunami forces on structure under two different conditions. Those include structures with various cross sections, as well as positioning a mitigation wall at an appropriate location relative to the structure. The first study focused on developing a numerical model to study the relationship between tsunami forces and the geometry of the structure. The main goal of this study was to define a numerical model capable of simulating this case precisely. To ensure the accuracy of the model, a comparison was carried out between the results of the numerical model and experimental test performed at the NRC-CHC (National Research Council- Canadian Hydraulics Center) laboratory in Ottawa, Canada and Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Belgium, which revealed a very good agreement between the results of the experimental test and numerical model. Further, the validated model was applied to investigate the tsunami force on structures with various cross sections. The second study focus was on developing a numerical model for understanding the role of mitigation wall (a novel idea proposed as a mitigation strategy by the second author of technical paper 2) on reducing the exerted force of tsunami on structures. After developing various models and applying several turbulence models, a valuable result was obtained which demonstrated that a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model seems to be an excellent approach for predicting the tsunami forces on the structure with a mitigation wall in the direction of the flow. The results of this study will be used to better estimate the tsunami forces exerted on coastal structures which will light the path to the main goal of designing tsunami resistant-structures.

La réduction des émissions de méthane (CH 4) des ruminants permet de limiter les impacts environnementaux négatifs de leur élevage et d’améliorer leur efficacité digestive. Dans le rumen, le CH 4 est majoritairement produit par les méthanogènes à partir de l’hydrogène (H 2). La disponibilité de l’H 2 pour ces micro-organismes est réduite en limitant sa production par les protozoaires (via un apport de lipides ou extraits de plantes dans la ration) ou en stimulant des voies utilisatrices d’H 2 compétitives à la méthanogenèse (via un apport alimentaire de nitrate). Aucune étude n’a porté sur l’association de stratégies alimentaires jouant à la fois sur la production et l’utilisation d’H 2 pour diminuer les émissions de CH 4 . Notre objectif était de comprendre l’importance des différentes voies métaboliques de l’H 2 dans le rumen. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que manipuler simultanément la production et l’utilisation de l’H 2 permet une diminution plus importante des émissions de CH 4 plutôt que d’agir sur un seul niveau. Nos résultats expérimentaux ont montré l’additivité de l’association lipides du lin-nitrate sur la méthanogenèse des bovins. Cet effet était persistant mais non bénéfique pour les performances digestives et laitières des animaux. L’association saponine de thé-nitrate n’a pas été efficace pour réduire les émissions de CH 4 car l’effet dépressif de la saponine sur les protozoaires n’a pas été observé. Cette thèse ouvre la possibilité d’étudier le potentiel anti-méthanogène de nouvelles associations de stratégies alimentaires ayant des mécanismes d’action différents dans le rumen. Les conditions d’utilisation de ces stratégies en élevage devront être délimitées, et leur rentabilité prouvée, pour être acceptées par l’éleveur. / Reduction of methane (CH 4) emissions from ruminants may limit the negative environmental impacts of their breeding and may improve their digestive efficiency. In the rumen, CH 4 is mainly produced by methanogens from hydrogen (H 2). Hydrogen availability for these micro-organisms is reduced by limiting its production by protozoa (via lipids or plants extracts supplementation in diets) or by stimulating pathways competing with methanogenesis for H 2 consumption (via nitrate supplementation in diets). No study tested association of dietary strategies acting on both H 2 production and consumption to reduce CH 4 emissions. Our objective was to understand the importance of the different H 2 metabolic pathways in the rumen. We assumed that simultaneous manipulation of H 2 production and consumption reduces CH 4 emissions to a higher extent than acting on a single pathway. Our experimental results showed the additive CH 4 -mitigating effect of the association lipids from linseed-nitrate supplemented to bovine. This effect was persistent but not beneficial for digestive and lactating performances of animals. The association tea saponin-nitrate was not efficient to reduce CH 4 emissions, as the depressive effect of saponin towards protozoa has not been observed. This PhD thesis opens the possibility to study the anti-methanogenic potential of new association of dietary strategies having different mechanisms of action in the rumen. Conditions of use of these strategies at the breeding scale will have to be delineated, and their cost effectiveness proved to be accepted by farmers.

This thesis is comprised of three distinct chapters, each of which is concerned in some way with the measurement of poverty. The first chapter provides social preference conditions which are both necessary and sufficient for a poverty line to arise endogenously. In so doing, it turns out that the apparently independent 'identification' and 'aggregation' problems in poverty measurement are subtly intertwined. Necessary and sufficient conditions are provided for the existence of both relative and absolute poverty lines. In each case, one of the conditions is a familiar weak monotonicity property. The other conditions are simple consistency requirements.In the second chapter, we propose classes of intertemporal poverty measures which take into account both the debilitating impact of prolonged spells in poverty and the mitigating effect of periods of affluence on subsequent poverty. The weight assigned to the level of poverty in each time period depends on the length of the preceding spell of poverty or of non-poverty. The proposed classes of intertemporal poverty measures are quite general and allow for a range of possible judgements as to the overall impact on a poor period of preceding spells of poverty or affluence. We discuss the properties of the proposed classes of measures and axiomatically characterize them.The third chapter is an empirical application of the intertemporal poverty measures proposed in the second chapter. The new measures, together with an existing intertemporal poverty measure from the literature, are used to analyse intertemporal poverty in Great Britain during the period 1991-2005, using data from the British Household Panel Survey. Previous studies on poverty using this data-set have employed static measures of poverty. We illustrate how the use of intertemporal poverty measures makes it possible to analyse aspects of poverty which cannot be captured by static, annual, measures of poverty. We then model the determinants of intertemporal poverty, conditional upon being poor, using a Heckman two-step selection model.

Le développement des énergies renouvelables et leur expansion à travers le monde s'inscrit dans une démarche de lutte contre le changement climatique. En Allemagne, le phénomène de l'expansion de l'«énergie verte» connaît un essor fulgurant depuis la décision prise par Angela Merkel en 2011 de sortir progressivement du nucléaire d'ici l'an 2020. La question posée est de savoir si les énergies renouvelables, figurant parmi les indicateurs de développement durable en Allemagne en respectent vraiment les principes fondamentaux? Ce travail relève donc dans un premier temps les défis auxquels font face l'infrastructure et l'économie allemandes. Ensuite, sur le plan micro-économique, une étude de la performance en matière de développement durable a été établie par le biais d'une analyse quantitative grâce à la méthode du Data Envelopment Analysis. La dernière partie s'intéresse aux changements sociaux et environnementaux tels que la participation de la société civile, ou encore la ‘pollution atmosphérique’ engendrée par ce type d’énergies. / The development and expansion of renewable energies throughout the world is part of a global approach undertaken to tackle climate change. In Germany, the expansion of "green energy" is soaring since the decision by Angela Merkel in 2011 to phase out nuclear power by 2020. The question is whether renewable energy, as one of the sustainable developmentindicators in Germany, really respects the fundamental principles of the latter? Hence, this first addresses the challenges faced by the German economy and infrastructure. Then, at the micro level, a sustainability performance study was established through a quantitative analysis using the Data Envelopment Analysis method. The final part deals with social and environmental changes such as the participation of civil society, or the atmospheric pollution caused by renewables.

In Brazil, estimate of methane (CH4) emission for the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory is carried out using the empirical Tier 2 approach published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Although, IPCC recommends the use of a more specific, mechanistic Tier 3 approach, this is hampered by a lack of consolidated data for development, evaluation and application of such a Tier 3 approach. The purpose of the present modelling study was to evaluate whether a Tier 3 approach instead of the Tier 2 approach has merit in estimating the effect of improvement of diet quality by feeding supplements on CH4 emission, calculated by both a Tier 2 and an extant Tier 3 approach. Six systems of beef cattle production in Brazil were considered which differed inage at slaughter mainly due to diet quality (ranging from 14 to 44 months). The systems studied encompass most of the range of slaughter age and feeding methods observed and the differences between them can be considered realistic for variation in current Brazilian practice of beef production. Estimates of feed quality and animal performance were based on published Brazilian studies and on data from a Brazilian inventory on enteric CH4. Both Tier 2 and Tier 3 approaches estimated a large variation in CH4 emission for the six production systems. The highest level of enteric CH4 emission (168 and 145 kg per slaughtered animal, estimated with the Tier 2 and Tier 3 approach, respectively) was estimated for the system with slaughter after 44 months and the lowest with slaughter after 14 months (35 and 31 kg per slaughtered animal, estimated with the Tier 2 and Tier 3 approach, respectively). The general trend was a profound increase of CH4 emission with increase of age-at-slaughter. Methane estimates depended strongly on the modelling approach adopted. Using the Tier 3 approach in the present study with the assumptions made for the six Brazilian beef production systems indicated substantially lower estimates of enteric CH4 compared to the IPCC Tier 2 approach. The Ym values (fraction of gross energy intake emitted as CH4) estimated by the Tier 3 approach for separate growing periods (seasons) within the different systems ranged between 0.044 and 0.070, and between 0.049 and 0.058 when averaged for the whole growing period (cf. 0.065 with Tier 2). Model estimates should be confirmed by evaluation against independent in vivo data obtained under local Brazilian conditions of beef production. / No Brasil, a estimativa de emissão de metano no inventário nacional sobre a emissão de metano (CH4) é realizada pela abordagem Tier 2, recomendada pelo Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudanças Climáticas (IPCC). Embora o IPCC recomende o uso do Tier 3, uma abordagem mais complexa, a aplicação desta no Brasil é dificultada pela falta de dados consolidados para o desenvolvimento, avaliação e aplicação do modelo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estimar o efeito da melhoria da qualidade da dieta na emissão entérica de CH4, em sistemas de produção de gado de corte brasileiros, pelos métodos Tier 2 e Tier 3. A emissão entérica de CH4, foi estimada em seis sistemas de produção de bovinos de corte, do desmame até abate. Os sistemas estudados abrangeram os métodos de alimentação mais praticados na produção de carne bovina brasileira. A qualidade da alimentação e desempenho animal foram estimados baseados em estudos publicados na literatura. Ambas as abordagems Tier 2 e 3 estimaram efeito da suplementação sobre a emissão de CH4. As estimativas do Tier 2 e 3, no sistema de abate aos 44 meses, apresentaram maior emissão de CH4 entérico comparados aos outros sistemas, resultando em valores de 168 e 145 kg de CH4 por animal, respectivamente. Por outro lado, o sistema de abate aos 14 meses, apresentou menor emissão de CH4, comparados aos outros sistemas, em valores de 35 e 31 kg de CH4 por animal abatido, respectivamente. A tendência geral foi um aumento de emissão de CH4 com o aumento da idade de abate. Usando a abordagem Tier 3 para as condições brasileiras resultou valores menores de CH4 entérico em comparação a Tier 2. Os valores Ym (fração de ingestão de energia bruta emitido como CH4) estimados pela Tier 3, nas diferentes estações, variou entre 0,044 e 0,070, e para diferentes sistemas de produção entre 0,049 e 0,058. Por outro lado a média para todo o período de crescimento foi 0,065 para Tier 2. Essas estimativas devem ser confirmados com dados in vivo obtidos em condições locais, com intuito de melhorar o modelo Tier.

Approximately 51.3% of small manufacturing businesses lack effective internal controls to deter fraud. Internal control strategies, when adequately implemented, can mitigate fraud and improve profitability in small manufacturing businesses. The objective of this single qualitative case study was to explore the internal control strategies used in a small manufacturing business to mitigate assets misappropriation fraud and improve profitability. Agency theory was the conceptual framework for this study. Five business managers in a small manufacturing firm in Cameroon participated in face-to-face semistructured interviews. The data analysis process included Yin's 5-step process. Identified themes included (a) governance at a higher management level, (b) vendor-related management approach, and (c) operational practices at the department level. Business leaders in small manufacturing firms could benefit from implementing the internal controls and procedures highlighted in this study to deter fraudulent billing from vendors, deceitful payment disbursement to vendors, and misrepresentation of financial statements by company executives. Fraud reduction might help business leaders to safeguard the company's assets and improve production goals by streamlining operational practices, leading to company profitability. In turn, business profitability would result in company leaders paying more taxes, which government officials may use for social amenities and change benefiting people in the community.

Recent conflict research has relied on proxy variables of horizontal inequality to make causal assumptions, but these do not reveal the root of deprivation in aggrieved populations. However, it is important to continue to explore the greed-grievance dichotomy to explain the persistence of violent civil conflict. The purpose of this quantitative study was to expand this line of inquiry by investigating the relationship between indicators of vertical deprivation and reported civil conflict incidents to determine whether a significant correlation exists. Relative deprivation theory provided the framework for this study, which consisted of 10,779 survey responses regarding lived experience across 7 countries experiencing a total of 890 civil conflict incidents in 2016. Although tests of multiple linear regression indicated statistically significant relationships (p < .001) between two of the predictor variables and reported civil conflict incidents, the availability of electricity when connected to the main made the most substantial contribution to the model in both predictability and correlation. Therefore, the findings provide insight into the type and nature of deprivations, such as those associated with access to and availability of electricity, that have the greatest potential of becoming grievances susceptible to exploitation by conflict entrepreneurs. Implications for positive social change include using this analysis to promote increased conflict inquiry among public administration scholars and to inform a more substantive role of local government managers in identifying and remediating vertical grievances, thereby mitigating civil conflict.

Approximately 51.3% of small manufacturing businesses lack effective internal controls to deter fraud. Internal control strategies, when adequately implemented, can mitigate fraud and improve profitability in small manufacturing businesses. The objective of this single qualitative case study was to explore the internal control strategies used in a small manufacturing business to mitigate assets misappropriation fraud and improve profitability. Agency theory was the conceptual framework for this study. Five business managers in a small manufacturing firm in Cameroon participated in face-to-face semistructured interviews. The data analysis process included Yin's 5-step process. Identified themes included (a) governance at a higher management level, (b) vendor-related management approach, and (c) operational practices at the department level. Business leaders in small manufacturing firms could benefit from implementing the internal controls and procedures highlighted in this study to deter fraudulent billing from vendors, deceitful payment disbursement to vendors, and misrepresentation of financial statements by company executives. Fraud reduction might help business leaders to safeguard the company's assets and improve production goals by streamlining operational practices, leading to company profitability. In turn, business profitability would result in company leaders paying more taxes, which government officials may use for social amenities and change benefiting people in the community.