Microwave photonic applications in the terahertz (THz) region of the spectrum are attracting increasing attention due to the need to find solutions for next-generation (5G/6G) wireless communication systems capable of handling unprecedented data rates. It is crucial to develop millimeter-wave (mm-wave) (30-300GHz) fiber supported transport networks. One of the key questions is, which carrier frequency generation technique will be the most suitable for THz signals above 300 GHz; electronics-based or photonics-based. Since the backbone of the wireless networks is composed by very high-capacity fibre optic cables, the microwave photonic approach has the ultimate advantage of seamless integration with existing optical fibre networks. Although the cost effectiveness is still an open question, simplistic base station architecture with simplified antenna units and high optical component reuse is necessary for enabling a compatible mobile network backhaul. For THz applications a broadband electro-optic modulator (EOM) with a frequency response extending to the sub-terahertz range, high power handling, and very low nonlinear distortions, is required. The objective of this thesis is to study the feasibility of photonic integration and, proof of concept implementations with the effective use of optical components with reduced energy consumption, reduced footprint and offer speed beyond all-electronic implementations. The first study presents a coherent electro-optic photonic integrated circuit deploying generalized Mach-Zehnder interferometer (GMZI) substituting N×1 combiner by an optical N×N discrete Fourier transform (DFT) in order to generate a regularly spaced frequency comb. The proposed design comprises of 1×N splitter that feeds light into a parallel array of N electro-optic phase modulators electrically driven by RF signal with a progressive phase shift with their phase modulated optical outputs processed by an N×N optical DFT. A pragmatic design approach and analytical formulation for implementing MMI based optical DFT in photonic networks composed of waveguide splitters, combiners, and phase-shift elements with necessary circuit diagram for even and odd dimensions are presented. Recently, there has been impressive progress toward ultra-wide band low voltage EOM. The heterogeneous approach of utilizing silicon nitride on lithium niobate waveguide integrated on a single chip is demonstrated for the best optical modulation performance that opens a wide range of opportunities for universal linear optical networks, chip-scale MWP systems, ultra-speed switching of optical communications. Finally, the third study de-scribes the architecture for compact on-chip spectrometry targeting high resolution across the entire C-band to measure the spectral profile of WDM signals reliably and accurately in fixed and flex-grid architectures. The design architecture of technologically viable com-pact on-chip high-resolution wideband spectrometer such as Mach-Zehnder delay interferometers (MZDI), 2×2 directional couplers and multimode interference couplers is presented and verified by software simulation using an industry standard tool. The components simulations that supported the assessment of the feasibility of a spectrometer compliant with the specification made use of the LioniX asymmetric double strip (ADS) waveguide and the low-cost photolithography.

A new any-point biasing scheme for Mach-Zehnder interferometer modulators which considers the complex phase is proposed. The Mach-Zehnder arm loss imbalance (imaginary part of the phase bias) is found by slightly perturbing the real and imaginary parts of the phase in each arm with low frequency pilot tones and monitoring and manipulating the spectral content at the output. This technique can be used to extend the possible extinction ratio, reduce the phase error, and better quantify the system chirp but also has some performance degradations which are also quantified and discussed. Simulation results indicate that the maximum extinction ratio of a typical modulator can be extended to ≳ 40 dB and maintained in the presence of ambient complex phase drift in the arms. Practical challenges for implementing this method with a silicon Mach-Zehnder modulator are discussed, but the analysis is general to other material platforms.

A new any-point biasing scheme for Mach-Zehnder interferometer modulators which considers the complex phase is proposed. The Mach-Zehnder arm loss imbalance (imaginary part of the phase bias) is found by slightly perturbing the real and imaginary parts of the phase in each arm with low frequency pilot tones and monitoring and manipulating the spectral content at the output. This technique can be used to extend the possible extinction ratio, reduce the phase error, and better quantify the system chirp but also has some performance degradations which are also quantified and discussed. Simulation results indicate that the maximum extinction ratio of a typical modulator can be extended to ≳ 40 dB and maintained in the presence of ambient complex phase drift in the arms. Practical challenges for implementing this method with a silicon Mach-Zehnder modulator are discussed, but the analysis is general to other material platforms.

El constante aumento de la capacidad de transmisión de la fibra óptica ha provocado que se estén llevando a cabo numerosos estudios centrados en el procesado óptico de la información digital a alta velocidad. Para poder realizar complejas operaciones de procesado óptico se requiere una memoria óptica de bajo consumo, alta velocidad y que sea integrable. Puesto que no existe el equivalente de las memorias RAM en el domino óptico, surge la necesidad de implementar dispositivos capaces de almacenar información durante un periodo de tiempo indeterminado. Una de las soluciones más atractivas para la implementación de estos sistemas de almacenamiento es el flip-flop óptico. Este dispositivo puede trabajar en dos estados de funcionamiento entre los que se conmuta empleando señales ópticas de control pulsadas. Entre todas las tecnologías utilizadas en el procesado óptico de la señal destaca el interferómetro Mach-Zehnder basado en el amplificador óptico de semiconductor (SOA-MZI) por su versatilidad y posibilidad de integración. En esta tesis se propone una arquitectura para implementar un flip-flop óptico basada en un SOA-MZI con un bucle de realimentación. Este dispositivo presenta un comportamiento biestable bajo determinadas condiciones. Sus principales ventajas son una menor complejidad (menor consumo de potencia), velocidad de conmutación y capacidad de integración. Asimismo, se ha desarrollado un modelo teórico para el SOA-MZI con realimentación a partir de las ecuaciones básicas que gobiernan el comportamiento del SOA. Este modelo ha permitido estudiar las características estáticas y dinámicas del sistema. Finalmente, se han propuesto dos nuevas aplicaciones para la arquitectura del SOA-MZI con realimentación. La primera de ellas consiste en un conmutador espacial 1x2 controlado ópticamente. Es la primera vez que se presenta una configuración que implemente esta funcionalidad en un único bloque. En segundo lugar se propone utilizar el flip-flop junto con una puerta / Clavero Galindo, R. (2007). Flip-flops ópticos basados en interferómetros Mach-Zehnder activos con realimentación [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/1958 / Palancia

Las redes ópticas de paquetes se han convertido en los últimos años en uno de los temas de vanguardia en el campo de las tecnologías de comunicaciones. El procesado de cabeceras es una de las funciones más importantes que se llevan a cabo en nodos intermedios, donde un paquete debe ser encaminado a su destino correspondiente. El uso de tecnología completamente óptica para las funciones de encaminamiento y reconocimiento de cabeceras reduce el retardo de procesado respecto al procesado eléctrico, disminuyendo de ese modo la latencia en el enlace de comunicaciones. Existen diferentes métodos de procesado de datos para implementar el reconocimiento de cabeceras. El objetivo de este trabajo es la propuesta de una nueva arquitectura para el procesado de cabeceras basado en el uso de puertas lógicas completamente ópticas. Estas arquitecturas tienen como elemento clave el interferómetro Mach-Zehnder basado en el amplificador óptico de semiconductor (SOA-MZI), y utilizan el efecto no lineal de modulación cruzada de fase (XPM) en los SOAs para realizar dicha funcionalidad. La estructura SOA-MZI con XPM es una de las alternativas más atractivas debido a las numerosas ventajas que presenta, como por ejemplo los requisitos de baja energía para las señales de entrada, su diseño compacto, una elevada relación de extinción (ER), regeneración de la señal y el bajo nivel de chirp que introducen. Este trabajo se ha centrado en la implementación de la funcionalidad lógica XOR. Mediante esta función se pueden realizar diversas funcionalidades en las redes ópticas. Se proponen dos esquemas para el reconocimiento de cabeceras basados en el uso de la puerta XOR. El primer esquema utiliza puertas en cascada. El segundo esquema presenta una arquitectura muy escalable, y se basa en el uso de un bucle de realimentación implementado a la salida de la puerta. Asimismo, también se presentan algunas aplicaciones del procesado de cabeceras para el encaminamiento de paquetes basadas en el uso d / Martínez Canet, JM. (2006). Photonic logic-gates: boosting all-optical header processing in future packet-switched networks [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/1874 / Palancia

<p>The task of the project was to evaluate a differential phase shift keying demodulation technique by replacing a Mach-Zehnder interferometer receiver with an optical filter (Fiber Bragg Grating). Computer simulations were made with single optical transmission, multi channel systems and transmission with combined angle/intensity modulated optical signals. The simulations showed good results at both 10 and 40 Gbit/s. Laboratory experiments were made at 10 Gbit/s to verify the simulation results. It was found that the demodulation technique worked, but not with satisfactory experimental results. The work was performed at Eindhoven University of Technology, Holland, within the framework of the STOLAS project at the department of Electro-optical communication.</p>

The task of the project was to evaluate a differential phase shift keying demodulation technique by replacing a Mach-Zehnder interferometer receiver with an optical filter (Fiber Bragg Grating). Computer simulations were made with single optical transmission, multi channel systems and transmission with combined angle/intensity modulated optical signals. The simulations showed good results at both 10 and 40 Gbit/s. Laboratory experiments were made at 10 Gbit/s to verify the simulation results. It was found that the demodulation technique worked, but not with satisfactory experimental results. The work was performed at Eindhoven University of Technology, Holland, within the framework of the STOLAS project at the department of Electro-optical communication.

La conversion de fréquence est une fonction clef présente dans divers contextes, particulièrement dans les systèmes mixtes photoniques-hyperfréquences. Aujourd’hui, la suprématie des réseaux optiques pour le transport de données à haut débit sur de grandes distances incite à l’intégration de telles fonctions dans le domaine optique afin de bénéficier des faibles pertes, larges bandes passantes, faibles poids et tailles propres aux technologies optiques. Dans ce travail, nous étudions un mélangeur tout-optique utilisant un composant SOA-MZI (Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Mach-Zehnder Interferometer) et une technique d’échantillonnage permettant la conversion vers les hautes et les basses fréquences. Le principe du mélange exploite les caractéristiques spectrales d’un signal échantillonné pour lequel des répliques du signal d’origine existent à différentes autres fréquences. Utiliser une telle technique pour la conversion de fréquences offre deux avantages : la conversion vers les hautes et les basses fréquences utilise la même configuration du mélangeur et la fréquence de l’oscillateur local peut être inférieure à la gamme des fréquences visées.L’implémentation d’une telle technique d’échantillonnage nécessite un interrupteur optique contrôlé optiquement.Comme cela est montré dans ce travail, un SOA-MZI peut jouer ce rôle. Selon la phase relative entre ses bras, un interféromètre Mach-Zehnder (MZI) peut transmettre ou non un signal optique d’entrée. En plaçant un SOA dans chaque bras de la structure MZI, la modulation croisée de la phase qui existe au sein d’un SOA est mise à profit pour contrôler l’état de l’interféromètre. Contrôlé par une source impulsionnelle optique, cet interrupteur optique permet d’échantillonner un signal optique porteur de données à modulation complexe. La conversion de fréquence de signaux mono et multi-porteuses dans le domaine 0,5-39,5 GHz a été obtenue avec succès. Par utilisation d’une configuration différentielle du SOA-MZI, des conversions vers les hautes et les basses fréquences jusqu’à un débit de 1 Gb/s ont pu être réalisées. / Frequency mixing is a key function existing in different systems, especially in mixed photonic-microwave ones. Today, the supremacy of optical networks to carry high bitrate data over large distances motivates the optical implementation of such functions to benefit from the low loss, high bandwidth, low size and weight of optical technologies. In this work, we study a photonic mixer based on a SOA-MZI (Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Mach-Zehnder Interferometer) device and a sampling technique allowing both conversion towards high and low frequencies.The involved mixing principle exploits the spectral characteristics of a sampled signal in which replicas of the original spectrum exist at different other frequencies. Basing the frequency conversion on a sampling technique gives two advantages: the photonic mixer configuration is the same for up and down conversions, and the frequency of the local oscillator can be less than the addressed frequency range.The implementation of such a sampling technique needs an optically-controlled high-frequency optical switch. As shown in this work, a SOA-MZI can play this role. Depending on the relative phase between its arms, an interferometric structure (MZI) can transmit or cancel an optical input signal. By locating one SOA in each arm of the MZI structure, the cross-phase modulation that exists inside an SOA is exploited to optically control the optical switch state of the MZI.Controlled by an optical pulse source, this optical switch is able to sample an optical input signal carrying complexmodulated data. Frequency conversions of mono and multi-carrier signals in the range 0.5-39.5 GHz have been successfully achieved. By using a differential configuration of the SOA-MZI, both up and down conversions at bitrates up to 1 Gb/s are reached.

The widespread adoption of photonic circuits requires the economics of volume manufacturing offered by integration technology. A Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor compatible silicon material platform is particularly attractive because it leverages the huge investment that has been made in silicon electronics and its high index contrast enables tight confinement of light which decreases component footprint and energy consumption. Nevertheless, there remain challenges to the development of photonic integrated circuits. Although the density of integration is advancing steady and the integration of the principal components – waveguides, optical sources and amplifiers, modulators, and photodetectors – have all been demonstrated, the integration density is low and the device library far from complete. The integration density is low primarily because of the difficulty of confining light in structures small compared to the wavelength which measured in micrometers. The device library is incomplete because of the immaturity of hybridisation on silicon of other materials required by active devices such as III-V semiconductor alloys and ferroelectric oxides and the difficulty of controlling the coupling of light between disparate material platforms. Metamaterials are nanocomposite materials which have optical properties not readily found in Nature that are defined as much by their geometry as their constituent materials. This offers the prospect of the engineering of materials to achieve integrated components with enhanced functionality. Metamaterials are a class of photonic crystals includes subwavelength grating waveguides, which have already provided breakthroughs in component performance yet require a simpler fabrication process compatible with current minimum feature size limitations. The research reported in this PhD thesis advances our understanding of the structure-property relations of key planar light circuit components and the metamaterial engineering of these properties. The analysis and simulation of components featuring structures that are only just subwavelength is complicated and consumes large computer resources especially when a three dimensional analysis of components structured over a scale larger than the wavelength is desired. This obstructs the iterative design-simulate cycle. An abstraction is required that summarises the properties of the metamaterial pertinent to the larger scale while neglecting the microscopic detail. That abstraction is known as homogenisation. It is possible to extend homogenisation from the long-wavelength limit up to the Bragg resonance (band edge). It is found that a metamaterial waveguide is accurately modeled as a continuous medium waveguide provided proper account is taken of the emergent properties of the homogenised metamaterial. A homogenised subwavelength grating waveguide structure behaves as a strongly anisotropic and spatially dispersive material with a c-axis normal to the layers of a one dimensional multi-layer structure (Kronig-Penney) or along the axis of uniformity for a two dimensional photonic crystal in three dimensional structure. Issues with boundary effects in the near Bragg resonance subwavelength are avoided either by ensuring the averaging is over an extensive path parallel to boundary or the sharp boundary is removed by graded structures. A procedure is described that enables the local homogenised index of a graded structure to be determined. These finding are confirmed by simulations and experiments on test circuits composed of Mach-Zehnder interferometers and individual components composed of regular nanostructured waveguide segments with different lengths and widths; and graded adiabatic waveguide tapers. The test chip included Lüneburg micro-lenses, which have application to Fourier optics on a chip. The measured loss of each lens is 0.72 dB. Photonic integrated circuits featuring a network of waveguides, modulators and couplers are important to applications in RF photonics, optical communications and quantum optics. Modal phase error is one of the significant limitations to the scaling of multimode interference coupler port dimension. Multimode interference couplers rely on the Talbot effect and offer the best in-class performance. Anisotropy helps reduce the Talbot length but temporal and spatial dispersion is necessary to control the modal phase error and wavelength dependence of the Talbot length. The Talbot effect in a Kronig-Penny metamaterial is analysed. It is shown that the metamaterial may be engineered to provide a close approximation to the parabolic dispersion relation required by the Talbot effect for perfect imaging. These findings are then applied to the multimode region and access waveguide tapers of a multi-slotted waveguide multimode interference coupler with slots either in the transverse direction or longitudinal direction. A novel polarisation beam splitter exploiting the anisotropy provided by a longitudinally slotted structure is demonstrated by simulation. The thesis describes the design, verification by simulation and layout of a photonic integrated circuit containing metamaterial waveguide test structures. The test and measurement of the fabricated chip and the analysis of the data is described in detail. The experimental results show good agreement with the theory, with the expected errors due to fabrication process limitations. From the Scanning Electron Microscope images and the measurements, it is clear that at the boundary of the minimum feature size limit, the error increases but still the devices can function.