We are developing a tabletop extreme-ultraviolet source using high harmonic generation at Brigham Young University. The thesis goes over the theory of high harmonic generation using the three-step model. This tabletop source was designed for probing magnetic domains of iron nanoparticles. We present optimization of the 42 eV and 52 eV harmonics through phase matching. Phase matching consists of tuning the intensity of the IR beam and pressure of the gas medium. The target gas medium used for this thesis is argon. The 42 eV harmonic was optimized to 8.2 billion photons per second. This was used with a 1500 mm focal-length lens, 15 mm medium length, laser power of 1.53 Watts, and a pressure of 12 Torr of argon gas. The 52 eV harmonic was optimized to 1.5 billion photons per second with a 1500 mm focal-length lens, 20 mm medium length, laser power of 3.29 W, and 14.9 Torr of argon gas. There are two designs for selection of harmonics: 1) a tunable design consisting of a toroidal mirror and flat diffraction grating and 2) a set of normal-incidence extreme-ultraviolet mirrors designed for 42 or 52 eV photons. Magnetic imaging uses x-ray magnetic circular dichroism to obtain magnetic contrast and use it to visualize magnetic nanosystems. Therefore, the high harmonic source also needs to generate circularly polarized light. Generating circularly polarized high harmonics is possible with a bichromatic beam. This is achieved using an apparatus called the MAZEL-TOV designed by Oren Cohen’s group at Technion University in Israel. The MAZEL-TOV consists of a BBO crystal for second harmonic generation, a pair of pulse delay compensation plates, and a quarter-wave plate. These optics are placed inline with the laser beam. We have successfully optimized the circularly polarized extreme-ultraviolet harmonics with the MAZEL-TOV. A spectrometer was made to calibrate the harmonics in the MAZEL-TOV spectrum. The tabletop source was then used to demonstrated coherent diffraction imaging of two pinholes.

No description available.

INTRODUÇÃO: A ressonância magnética (RM) é, atualmente, uma das técnicas mais utilizadas para avaliação quantitativa do volume das estruturas cerebrais. Estudos com pessoas que preenchem critérios diagnósticos para dependência de álcool, utilizando esta técnica, demonstram atrofia cerebral nestes sujeitos, sendo que a região mais sensível e afetada pelos efeitos do álcool parece ser o córtex pré-frontal. A literatura revisada sugere que as subporções do córtex pré-frontal que podem ser mais suscetíveis aos efeitos do uso crônico do álcool são as regiões filogeneticamente mais recentes, como as áreas anterior e dorsolateral, enquanto que a área orbital, mais antiga, pode estar mais preservada. No entanto, nenhum estudo de RM morfométrica até hoje investigou possíveis diferenças no grau de comprometimento morfológico entre áreas de Brodmann (AB) distintas na região pré-frontal, em indivíduos que preenchem diagnóstico para dependência de álcool em comparação com voluntários saudáveis. OBJETIVO: O presente trabalho teve como objetivo realizar um estudo detalhado do impacto do álcool, especialmente sobre o córtex pré-frontal, parcelando-o em áreas de Brodmann, o que pode auxiliar para uma maior compreensão dos danos cerebrais subjacentes aos déficits cognitivos presentes em alcoolistas e ajudar no planejamento de estratégias terapêuticas e de reabilitação cognitiva. METODOLOGIA: A amostra foi composta por dois grupos: o grupo dependentes de álcool (DA), com 98 sujeitos que preenchiam critérios diagnósticos para dependência de álcool, e o grupo controle, com 73 sujeitos saudáveis pareados por idade, sexo e dominância cerebral. RESULTADOS: Foram encontradas diferenças estatisticamente significantes na volumetria cerebral, especialmente, no córtex frontal (substância cinzenta e líquor p<0,05) e parietal (substância cinzenta e líquor p<0,05). Quando dividido em AB, as áreas mais afetadas foram a AB 8 (SC p<0,001; L p<0,006), AB 9 (SC e L p<0,002) e AB 44 (L p=0,036 , SB p<0,005). CONCLUSÃO: Foi possível confirmar a hipótese inicial de que as áreas filogeneticamente jovens são mais sensíveis e vulneráveis à neurotoxidade do álcool, o qual, por sua vez, acelera o processo natural do envelhecimento, implicando perdas de substância cinzenta, principalmente nas áreas cognitivamente mais sofisticadas, como a anterior e a dorsolateral do córtex pré-frontal / INTRODUCTION: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is currently one of the most widely used techniques for quantitative evaluation brain volume. MRI studies with people who meet diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence show brain atrophy, especially on the prefrontal cortex, which seems to be the most sensitive and affected area by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. The reviewed literature suggests that the sub-portions of the prefrontal cortex that may be more susceptible to the effects of chronic alcohol use are the phylogenetically newer regions such as the anterior and dorsolateral areas, while the orbital area, older than the others, may be preserved. However, no morphometric MRI study has investigated possible differences in the degree of morphological changes at Brodmann areas (BA) in prefrontal regions of people who meet the diagnosis for alcohol dependence compared with healthy volunteers. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was deep investigate alcohols impact, especially in the prefrontal cortex, dividing it in BA, which can contribute to a better understanding of the brain damage, underlying cognitive deficits present in alcoholics, and to help to establish treatment strategies and cognitive rehabilitation. METHODS: The sample comprised two groups: a group of alcohol dependent (AD) with 98 subjects, who met diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence, and the control group consisted of 73 healthy subjects matched for age, sex and cerebral dominance. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found in the brain volume, mainly in the frontal cortex (gray matter and CSF p <0.05) and parietal cortex (gray matter, white matter and CSF p <0.05). When divided in Brodmann areas, the most affected one was: BA 8 (gray matter p <0.001; CSF p<0.006), BA 9 (gray matter and CSF p<0.002) and BA 44 (CSF p = 0.036, white matter p<0.005). CONCLUSION: It was possible to confirm the initial hypothesis that the phylogenetically younger areas are more sensitive and vulnerable to alcohol neurotoxicity, which accelerates the natural process of aging, implying loss of gray matter, especially in areas more cognitively sophisticated such as the anterior and the dorsolateral prefrontal areas

INTRODUÇÃO: A ressonância magnética (RM) é, atualmente, uma das técnicas mais utilizadas para avaliação quantitativa do volume das estruturas cerebrais. Estudos com pessoas que preenchem critérios diagnósticos para dependência de álcool, utilizando esta técnica, demonstram atrofia cerebral nestes sujeitos, sendo que a região mais sensível e afetada pelos efeitos do álcool parece ser o córtex pré-frontal. A literatura revisada sugere que as subporções do córtex pré-frontal que podem ser mais suscetíveis aos efeitos do uso crônico do álcool são as regiões filogeneticamente mais recentes, como as áreas anterior e dorsolateral, enquanto que a área orbital, mais antiga, pode estar mais preservada. No entanto, nenhum estudo de RM morfométrica até hoje investigou possíveis diferenças no grau de comprometimento morfológico entre áreas de Brodmann (AB) distintas na região pré-frontal, em indivíduos que preenchem diagnóstico para dependência de álcool em comparação com voluntários saudáveis. OBJETIVO: O presente trabalho teve como objetivo realizar um estudo detalhado do impacto do álcool, especialmente sobre o córtex pré-frontal, parcelando-o em áreas de Brodmann, o que pode auxiliar para uma maior compreensão dos danos cerebrais subjacentes aos déficits cognitivos presentes em alcoolistas e ajudar no planejamento de estratégias terapêuticas e de reabilitação cognitiva. METODOLOGIA: A amostra foi composta por dois grupos: o grupo dependentes de álcool (DA), com 98 sujeitos que preenchiam critérios diagnósticos para dependência de álcool, e o grupo controle, com 73 sujeitos saudáveis pareados por idade, sexo e dominância cerebral. RESULTADOS: Foram encontradas diferenças estatisticamente significantes na volumetria cerebral, especialmente, no córtex frontal (substância cinzenta e líquor p<0,05) e parietal (substância cinzenta e líquor p<0,05). Quando dividido em AB, as áreas mais afetadas foram a AB 8 (SC p<0,001; L p<0,006), AB 9 (SC e L p<0,002) e AB 44 (L p=0,036 , SB p<0,005). CONCLUSÃO: Foi possível confirmar a hipótese inicial de que as áreas filogeneticamente jovens são mais sensíveis e vulneráveis à neurotoxidade do álcool, o qual, por sua vez, acelera o processo natural do envelhecimento, implicando perdas de substância cinzenta, principalmente nas áreas cognitivamente mais sofisticadas, como a anterior e a dorsolateral do córtex pré-frontal / INTRODUCTION: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is currently one of the most widely used techniques for quantitative evaluation brain volume. MRI studies with people who meet diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence show brain atrophy, especially on the prefrontal cortex, which seems to be the most sensitive and affected area by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. The reviewed literature suggests that the sub-portions of the prefrontal cortex that may be more susceptible to the effects of chronic alcohol use are the phylogenetically newer regions such as the anterior and dorsolateral areas, while the orbital area, older than the others, may be preserved. However, no morphometric MRI study has investigated possible differences in the degree of morphological changes at Brodmann areas (BA) in prefrontal regions of people who meet the diagnosis for alcohol dependence compared with healthy volunteers. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was deep investigate alcohols impact, especially in the prefrontal cortex, dividing it in BA, which can contribute to a better understanding of the brain damage, underlying cognitive deficits present in alcoholics, and to help to establish treatment strategies and cognitive rehabilitation. METHODS: The sample comprised two groups: a group of alcohol dependent (AD) with 98 subjects, who met diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence, and the control group consisted of 73 healthy subjects matched for age, sex and cerebral dominance. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found in the brain volume, mainly in the frontal cortex (gray matter and CSF p <0.05) and parietal cortex (gray matter, white matter and CSF p <0.05). When divided in Brodmann areas, the most affected one was: BA 8 (gray matter p <0.001; CSF p<0.006), BA 9 (gray matter and CSF p<0.002) and BA 44 (CSF p = 0.036, white matter p<0.005). CONCLUSION: It was possible to confirm the initial hypothesis that the phylogenetically younger areas are more sensitive and vulnerable to alcohol neurotoxicity, which accelerates the natural process of aging, implying loss of gray matter, especially in areas more cognitively sophisticated such as the anterior and the dorsolateral prefrontal areas

La capacité à cartographier le champ magnétique à l'échelle nanométrique serait un atout crucial pour étudier les propriétés magnétiques des solides ainsi que certains phénomènes de transport, mais aussi pour des études fondamentales en biologie. Cette thèse porte sur la réalisation d'un microscope de champ magnétique d'un genre nouveau, qui promet une résolution spatiale de quelques nanomètres, une sensibilité de l'ordre du nanotesla, et fonctionne aux conditions ambiantes. Ce microscope est basé sur le défaut azote-lacune du diamant, dont les propriétés quantiques peuvent être exploitées pour en faire un magnétomètre ultrasensible de taille atomique. Dans un premier temps, nous présenterons le fonctionnement et la réalisation du microscope à défaut azote-lacune, qui consiste essentiellement en un microscope à force atomique sur la pointe duquel un nanocristal de diamant est attaché. Nous testerons le microscope en imageant le champ de fuite généré par un cœur de vortex dans un microdisque ferromagnétique. Dans un second temps, nous appliquerons le microscope à l'étude de couches ferromagnétiques ultraminces. Ces systèmes présentent un intérêt à la fois fondamental, les effets d'interfaces restant encore largement inexplorés à ce jour, et technologique, puisqu'ils sont à la base de propositions pour la réalisation de nouvelles mémoires magnétiques à basse consommation d'énergie. Nous étudierons d'abord la nature des parois de domaines dans ces couches ultraminces, ce qui nous permettra de révéler l'existence d'une interaction Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya d'origine interfaciale dans certains échantillons. Nous étudierons ensuite les sauts nanométriques d'une paroi de domaine induits par l'agitation thermique. Nous démontrerons en particulier le contrôle de ces sauts par un laser, ce qui nous permettra de visualiser et explorer le paysage énergétique de la paroi. / The ability to map the magnetic field at the nanometer scale would be a crucial advance to study the magnetic properties of solids as well as some transport phenomena, but also for fundamental studies in biology. This thesis deals with the realisation of a magnetic field microscope of a new kind, which promises a spatial resolution down to a few nanometres, a sensitivity of the order of a few nanoteslas, and operates under ambient conditions. This microscope is based on the nitrogen-vacancy defect in diamond, whose quantum properties can be harnessed to make an ultrasensitive, atomic-size magnetometre. In the first part, we will present the basic principles and the realisation of the nitrogen-vacancy defect microscope, which consists essentially in an atomic force microscope on the tip of which a diamond nanocrystal is grafted. We will test the microscope by imaging the stray field generated by a vortex core in a ferromagnetic microdisk. In the second part, we will apply the microscope to the study of ultrathin ferromagnets. These systems are interesting both from the physical point of view, as interface effects have been little explored so far, and for technology, as they are the cornerstone of several proposals for realising novel magnetic memory devices with low energy consumption. We will first study the nature of domain walls in these ultrathin ferromagnets, which will enable us to reveal the existence of an interface-related Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction in some samples. Next, we will study the nanometric jumps of a domain wall induced by thermal fluctuations. In particular, we will demonstrate control over these jumps using a laser, which will allow us to visualise and explore the wall's energy landscape.

Le but de cette thèse est d'étudier les corrélats comportementaux et neuronaux du transfert inter-linguistique (TIL) dans l'apprentissage d’une langue seconde (L2). Compte tenu de nos connaissances sur l'influence de la distance linguistique sur le TIL (Paradis, 1987, 2004; Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005; Gollan, 2005; Ringbom, 2007), nous avons examiné l'effet de facilitation de la similarité phonologique à l’aide de la résonance magnétique fonctionnelle entre des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français) et des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). L'étude I rapporte les résultats obtenus pour des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français), alors que l'étude II porte sur des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). Puis, les changements de connectivité fonctionnelle dans le réseau langagier (Price, 2010) et dans le réseau de contrôle supplémentaire impliqué dans le traitement d’une langue seconde (Abutalebi & Green, 2007) lors de l’apprentissage d’une langue linguistiquement éloignée (persan-français) sont rapportés dans l’étude III. Les résultats des analyses d’IRMF suivant le modèle linéaire général chez les bilingues de langues linguistiquement proches (français-espagnol) montrent que le traitement des mots phonologiquement similaires dans les deux langues (cognates et clangs) compte sur un réseau neuronal partagé par la langue maternelle (L1) et la L2, tandis que le traitement des mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) active des structures impliquées dans le traitement de la mémoire de travail et d'attention. Toutefois, chez les personnes bilingues de L1-L2 linguistiquement éloignées (français-persan), même les mots phonologiquement similaires à travers les langues (cognates et clangs) activent des régions connues pour être impliquées dans l'attention et le contrôle cognitif. Par ailleurs, les mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) activent des régions usuellement associées à la mémoire de travail et aux fonctions exécutives. Ainsi, le facteur de distance inter-linguistique entre L1 et L2 module la charge cognitive sur la base du degré de similarité phonologiques entres les items en L1 et L2. Des structures soutenant les processus impliqués dans le traitement exécutif sont recrutées afin de compenser pour des demandes cognitives. Lorsque la compétence linguistique en L2 augmente et que les tâches linguistiques exigent ainsi moins d’effort, la demande pour les ressources cognitives diminue. Tel que déjà rapporté (Majerus, et al, 2008; Prat, et al, 2007; Veroude, et al, 2010; Dodel, et al, 2005; Coynel, et al ., 2009), les résultats des analyses de connectivité fonctionnelle montrent qu’après l’entraînement la valeur d'intégration (connectivité fonctionnelle) diminue puisqu’il y a moins de circulation du flux d'information. Les résultats de cette recherche contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des aspects neurocognitifs et de plasticité cérébrale du TIL ainsi que l'impact de la distance linguistique dans l'apprentissage des langues. Ces résultats ont des implications dans les stratégies d'apprentissage d’une L2, les méthodes d’enseignement d’une L2 ainsi que le développement d'approches thérapeutiques chez des patients bilingues qui souffrent de troubles langagiers. / The purpose of this thesis was to study the behavioral and neural correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer effects (CLT) at the word level, in second language learning. Moreover, given that language distance has an impact on CLT, (Paradis, 1987, 2004, Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005, Gollan, 2005, Ringbom, 2007), two distinct language pairs were examined: Close language pairs (Spanish-French) and distant language pairs (Persian-French). This thesis comprises three studies. In study I, Spanish speakers and in study II Persian speakers were trained for lexical learning until consolidation level. Cognates (phonologically and semantically similar words), Clangs (phonologically similar words with different meanings), and Non-cognate-non-clangs (semantically similar words), were presented in a picture naming task. Accuracy rates and response times as well as event-related fMRI BOLD responses to each word category were measured. Simple and direct contrasts with phonologically similar and phonologically distant words were performed. Thus, Study I reports the results of close languages (Spanish-French) and Study II, reports the results of distant languages (Persian-French). The neurocognitive processing of language learning was further investigated in terms of networks using functional connectivity analysis in distant languages (Persian-French) and the results are reported in Study III. The Results with the General Linear Model analysis show that with close language pairs (French-Spanish), the processing of phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) relies upon a shared L1-L2 language specific neural areas, whereas processing of phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates), activates L1 language processing areas, but also relies upon working memory, attentional, and processing structures. However, with distant language pairs (French-Persian), even phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) activate areas known to be involved in attentional processing and cognitive control. Moreover, phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates) also activate areas involved in working memory and executive function processing structures. Thus, the factor of L1-L2 cross-linguistic distance appears to modulate the executive load imposed to the system, on the basis of the degree of phonological overlap between L1-L2 items; thus in order to compensate for more effortful processing demands, the system recruits executive function supporting structures. The results of the connectivity analysis show that, in line with literature (Majerus, et al., 2008; Prat, et al., 2007; Veroude, et al., 2010; Dodel, et al., 2005; Coynel, et al., 2009), when the language proficiency is low, there is enhanced functional connectivity between and within language specific and other cognitive processing (working memory, attentional and cognitive control) networks. However, as proficiency increases, integration values (functional connectivity) decrease. This reflects that language tasks become less effortful and demand less cognitive resources. The results of this dissertation contribute to a better understanding of CLT effects on L2 learning, both in regards to different word types and L1-L2 language distance. These results have implications with regards to L2 learning and teaching strategies and approaches as well as with regards to the development of data-driven therapy approaches in the case of language break down in bilingual population.

Apresenta-se o desenho, construção e caracterização de uma plataforma experimental para a obtenção de imagens magnéticas bidimensionais (2D) geradas pela distribuição não uniforme em gel de vaselina de micro-partículas magnéticas (magnetita- Fe3O4), acomodadas em fantomas magnéticos de geometrias irregulares. A instrumentação é basicamente formada por um arranjo multicanal de 12-sensores magnetorresistivos de última geração (modelo HMC 1001/1002 da Honeywell), os quais convertem os sinais magnéticos, a serem medidas, em voltagens diferenciais, que posteriormente passam-se pela etapa de condicionamento analógico multisinais, e adquiridos por uma placa de aquisição PCI de 16 canais simples, e geradas pelas fontes magnéticas (fantomas) as quais eram posicionadas acima de uma tabua porta-fantoma a qual era acionada por um sistema de posicionamento x-y, utilizando-se dois motores de passo controlados via porta paralela. A obtenção e processamento das imagens de forma automática foi levado acabo por médio da ferramenta computacional SmaGimFM v1.0 (grupo de scripts escritos pelo autor, em LABVIEW v8.1 e Matlab v7.3). A montagem experimental foi desenhada para realizar o scan numa área de ate (20x18) cm2. O sistema consegue medir campos na ordem de poucos nano-teslas (10-9 T). Foi demostrado experimentalmente que: a detectibilidade do sistema está na ordem de 100 pT/?Hz; a resolução, o menor valor da indução magnética detectada e a resolução espacial dos sensores foi aproximadamente de (3±1) nT e (3.0± 0.1) mm, respectivamente, este último obtido para uma distancia sensor-fonte média de (6.0± 0.1) mm. O nível de ruído ambiental médio foi corroborado experimentalmente no valor de 10 nT. O fator de Calibração para todos os sensores alimentados com 8V, foi aproximadamente de 10-6 T/V, confirmando o valor da sensibilidade nominal oferecida pelo vendedor no data-sheet dos sensores. Os multisinais sempre foram pré-processadas para a remoção dos offset, e posteriormente era realizadas uma interpolação bi-cúbica, para gerar imagens magnéticas com uma alta resolução espacial da ordem de (256x256) pixels. A funções de transferência da modulação e espalhamento pontual do sistema foram estudados e os sensores foram espaçados e fixados de acordo com os resultados destes estudos. Nesta tese todas as imagens cruas foram geradas pelo mapeamento da resposta do sistema multicanal de magnetômetros a pequenas distancias e geradas pela presença de micropartículas de magnetita (Fe3O4) não tratada termicamente e dispersada em oitos fantomas planares com geometrias complexas e chamados como: PhMão; PhNum; PhLines; PhCinco; PhTrês; PhCircle; PhQuadSmall e PhQuadBig. As imagens magnéticas de cada um destes fantomas é apresentada. A cada experimento, estes fantomas eram magnetizados pela ação de um pulso magnético uniforme no volume dos fantomas, com um valor aproximadamente de 81.6 mT, e produzido por um sistema de bobinas par de Helmholtz. Para fazer o registro experimental das imagens magnéticas, os fantomas foram posicionados a uma altura fixa em relação aos sensores, e movidos numa direção de scan, assim nos detectores observávamos as voltagens gerados pela variação no campo remanente devido às diferentes concentrações de micro-partículas magnéticas magnetizadas foram medidos e controlados por um computador pessoal. Usando as imagens cruas (imagens ruidosas e borradas) e outras informações a priori, foram obtidas as imagens reconstruídas das fontes do campo magnético, tais como, a distribuição de partículas ferrimagnéticas no interior dos fantomas, a qual é relacionada com a susceptibilidade magnética das amostras. Encontrar as imagens das fontes magnéticas, é resolver o problema magnético associado, e nosso trabalho estas restaurações foram realizadas usando-se os seguintes algoritmos numéricos de deconvolução, filtragem espacial de Wiener e Fourier, o filtragem Pseudo-inversa, o método do gradiente conjugado e os procedimentos de regularização de Tikhonov e Decomposição de Valores singulares truncados, dentre outros. Estes procedimentos foram implementados e testados. As imagens reconstruídas das fontes magnéticas de quatro fantomas são apresentadas. Estas técnicas foram programadas computacionalmente por médio de um conjunto de scripts chamados de SmaGimFM v1.0, estes foram escritos nos linguagens computacionais MATLAB® desde a MathWorks Inc.; e LABVIEW desde a National Instruments Inc. Estes resultados preliminares mostram que o sistema de imagens apresenta potencial para ser aplicada em estudos na área da Física Médica, onde imagens com moderada para alta resolução espacial e baixa amplitude da indução magnética são exigidas. Contudo, podemos afirmar que à distância sensor-fonte é crítica e afeta a resolução das imagens. O sistema é capaz de registrar imagens na ordem de 10-9 T, e sua elevada resolução espacial indica que pode ser testada como uma nova técnica biomagnética para gerar imagens em 2D de partículas magnéticas dentro de objetos, na região do campo próximo, para futuras aplicações médicas / We have designed and build a magnetic imaging system for obtaining experimental noisy and blurred magnetic images from distribution of ferromagnetic tracers (magnetite Fe3O4). The main part of the magnetic imaging system was formed by a linear array composed of 12-magnetoresistive sensors from Honeywell Inc. (HMC 1001). These sensors are microcircuits with a configuration of wheatstone-bridge and convert magnetic fields into differential voltage, which after pass for the multichannel signal stage can be to measure magnetic signals about of 10-9 T. The system is capable of scanning planar samples with dimensions up to (16x18) cm square. A full experimental characterization of the magnetic imaging system was carried out. The calibration factor for all sensor supplied by 8 V, was approximately 10-6 T/V, confirming the data sheet nominal properties from the vendor. The spatial resolution and the resolution of the magnetic imaging system were experimentally confirmed to be 3 mm and 3 nT, respectively. The spectral density noise was about , for the experimental conditions used in these studies. The signals were pre-processed for offset remove and the interpolation for spatial resolution improves and generates images of (256x256) pixels. The point spread and modulation transference functions of multi-sensor system were studied and the sensors were spaced accordingly. In this thesis, all raw images were generated by mapping the response of the magnetoresistive magnetometers multichannel array at short distances due to the presence of uncooked magnetite powder dispersed in eight planar phantoms with complex geometries and called as: PhMão; PhNum; PhLines; PhCinco; PhTrês; PhCircle; PhQuadSmall and PhQuadBig. These phantoms were magnetized by a uniform pulse field of approximately of 81.6 mT produced by a Helmholtz coil system. The samples were moved under the magnetoresistive sensors and the voltages generated by the variation in remanent magnetic field due to different magnetized ferromagnetic particles concentrations were recorded and controlled by a personal computer. Using the experimental noisy and blurred magnetic field images (raw images), and some another, a priori information\'s, the reconstruction of the magnetic field source images, such as, the distribution of ferromagnetic particles inner of the phantoms which are related with magnetic susceptibility, was obtained by various inverse problem solution algorithms\', such as, the spatial Wiener and Fourier filtering, the Pseudo-inverse filtering; the conjugated gradient and Tikhonov and Decomposition of Truncated Singular Values approaches and others. These procedures were implemented by mean of the scripts set called SmaGimFM v1.0, that we developed using the MATLAB® language from MathWorks Inc. A preliminary result shows that this magnetic imaging system join to some deconvolution technique can be considered efficient to be used in functional images of the gastrointestinal tract, where a moderate resolution is required. We can affirm that at a distance sensor-source choose is a critical parameter and affects the resolution of the images; and we can conclude that this magnetic images method can be successfully used to generate planar blurred magnetic images and magnetic field sources images in the near field region at macroscopic level generated by ferromagnetic materials.

Os tumores adrenocorticais (TAC) são lesões que se originam do córtex da glândula suprarrenal e ocorrem tanto em crianças quanto em adultos. Técnicas de imagem que forneçam informações quantitativas relativas à citoarquitetura desses tumores ainda não foram estabelecidas neste contexto. A difusão por ressonância magnética (DWI) é uma técnica que pode fornecer informações quantitativas dos tecidos através do valor do coeficiente aparente de difusão (ADC). O papel do ADC nas lesões tumorais adrenais tem sido estudado, porém sua relação com critérios histopatológicos e prognósticos ainda não foram descritos. O objetivo geral deste estudo é investigar a utilidade dos métodos de imagem realizando um paralelo na correlação clínica, histopatológica entre TAC em crianças e carcinoma adrenocortical (CAC) nos adultos. Os objetivos específicos são correlacionar os valores do ADC tumoral a escores histopatológicos, celularidade e Ki-67 tanto em crianças quanto em adultos, avaliando ainda a concordância entre-observadores nas medidas dos ADCs em pacientes e em controles. Este trabalho será baseado em três artigos, nos quais mostrarão a metodologia, resultados e discussões relativos à cada uma das etapas. O primeiro artigo, \"Neoplasias adrenocorticais em adultos e crianças: apresentações distintas. Revisão dos aspectos clínicos, patológicos e do diagnostico por imagem\" trata-se de uma revisão da literatura e análise comparativa sobre as características clínicas, histopatológicas e por imagem dos TAC em crianças e adultos. O segundo artigo, Estudo dos parâmetros derivados do histograma do coeficiente aparente de difusão obtido pela técnica de difusão por RM na avaliação de prognóstico do carcinoma adrenocortical\", estudou CAC em adultos e buscou associar o ADC com os critérios clínicos, histopatológicos, celularidade e o Ki-67. No terceiro artigo \"Tumores Adrenocorticais Pediátricos valores de ADC na diferenciação entre adenomas e carcinomas e sua relação com critérios histopatológicos\" foi realizado em crianças com TAC buscando uma tentativa de diferenciação pelo ADC entre tumores com comportamentos benignos e malignos seja clínica ou histopatologicamente. Os valores de ADCmínimo (ADCmín) e máximo nos adultos, demonstraram ser úteis para diferenciar controles de pacientes com CAC. O ADCmín nos pacientes adultos com CACs evidenciaram que podem ser utilizados para inferir celularidade tumoral. Este estudo ainda reafirmou em adultos com CAC, os valores do Ki-67 como marcador prognóstico e demonstrou uma boa relação da celularidade com o sistema de Weiss. Já nas crianças, houve correlação inversa de alguns dos valores do ADCs com o peso tumoral. Os valores de ADCs não demonstraram relação com a celularidade e com o comportamento clínico e histopatológico dos pacientes, reafirmando, portanto, a peculiaridade dos TAC pediátricos em relação à população adulta. Apesar de neste estudo, os valores de ADCs terem sido mais baixos nos TACs e em CACs que os valores na glândula saudável e de nos adultos ter havido correlação do ADCmín e a celularidade tumoral e em criança com o peso lesional, estas alterações não foram suficientes para predizer objetivamente, critérios preditores de agressividade tumoral ou de prognóstico, podendo eventualmente no futuro, representar uma ferramenta para tal. / Adrenocortical tumors (TAC) are lesions that originate from the cortex of the adrenal gland and occur in children and also in adults. Imaging techniques that provide quantitative information about the citoarchitecture of these tumors have not been established in this context yet. The diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (DWI) is a technique that can provide quantitative information of the tissues by the value of the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC). The role of the ADC in adrenal tumors has been studied, however its relationship with histopathological prognostic criteria has not been described yet. The aim of this study is to investigate the usefulness of imaging methods performing a parallel in the clinical and histopathologic correlation of the TACs in children and adrenocortical carcinoma (CAC) in adults. The specific objectives are to correlate the values of tumor ADC histopathologic scores, cellularity and Ki-67 in children and also in adults, still evaluating the agreement between observers in the measurements of ADCs in patients and controls. This study will be based on three articles in which show the methodology, results and discussions relating to each of the steps. The first paper, \"Adrenocortical neoplasms in adults and children: different presentations. Review of clinical, pathological and diagnostic imaging \" is about a literature review and comparative analysis of the clinical, histopathological and imaging of CT in children and adults. The second article, \"Utility of the parameters derived from the histogram of the apparent diffusion coefficient obtained by MR diffusion technique in the assessment of adrenocortical carcinoma prognosis,\" studied CAC in adults and sought to link the ADC with the clinical, histopathological, cellularity and Ki-67 of these lesions. In the third paper \"Pediatric adrenocortical tumors: ADC values to differentiate between adenomas and carcinomas and its correlation with histopathological criteria\" was conducted in children with TAC seeking an attempt to differentiate between the ADC tumors with benign and malignant behavior either in clinical or histopathological prism. The ADCmín and max values in adults proven to be useful to differentiate patients from controls. The ADC min in adult patients with CACs showed that it could be used to infer tumor cellularity. This study also reaffirmed in adults with CAC, the values of Ki-67 as a prognostic marker and demonstrated a good relationship with Weiss score and cellularity. Also in children, there was a significant inverse correlation of some of the ADCs values with tumor weight. Some ADCs values showed no relationship to the cellularity and the clinical and histopathological behavior of patients, re-affirming therefore the peculiarity of pediatric TAC relation to the adult population. Despite this study, the ADCs values were lower in TACs and CACs than the values in healthy gland and also that in adults have been correlation the ADCmín and tumor cellularity and in children with weight, these changes were not enough to predict objectively, criteria predictive of tumor aggressiveness and prognosis possibly could in the future represent a tool for such.

Le but de cette thèse est d'étudier les corrélats comportementaux et neuronaux du transfert inter-linguistique (TIL) dans l'apprentissage d’une langue seconde (L2). Compte tenu de nos connaissances sur l'influence de la distance linguistique sur le TIL (Paradis, 1987, 2004; Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005; Gollan, 2005; Ringbom, 2007), nous avons examiné l'effet de facilitation de la similarité phonologique à l’aide de la résonance magnétique fonctionnelle entre des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français) et des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). L'étude I rapporte les résultats obtenus pour des langues linguistiquement proches (espagnol-français), alors que l'étude II porte sur des langues linguistiquement éloignées (persan-français). Puis, les changements de connectivité fonctionnelle dans le réseau langagier (Price, 2010) et dans le réseau de contrôle supplémentaire impliqué dans le traitement d’une langue seconde (Abutalebi & Green, 2007) lors de l’apprentissage d’une langue linguistiquement éloignée (persan-français) sont rapportés dans l’étude III. Les résultats des analyses d’IRMF suivant le modèle linéaire général chez les bilingues de langues linguistiquement proches (français-espagnol) montrent que le traitement des mots phonologiquement similaires dans les deux langues (cognates et clangs) compte sur un réseau neuronal partagé par la langue maternelle (L1) et la L2, tandis que le traitement des mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) active des structures impliquées dans le traitement de la mémoire de travail et d'attention. Toutefois, chez les personnes bilingues de L1-L2 linguistiquement éloignées (français-persan), même les mots phonologiquement similaires à travers les langues (cognates et clangs) activent des régions connues pour être impliquées dans l'attention et le contrôle cognitif. Par ailleurs, les mots phonologiquement éloignés (non-clang-non-cognates) activent des régions usuellement associées à la mémoire de travail et aux fonctions exécutives. Ainsi, le facteur de distance inter-linguistique entre L1 et L2 module la charge cognitive sur la base du degré de similarité phonologiques entres les items en L1 et L2. Des structures soutenant les processus impliqués dans le traitement exécutif sont recrutées afin de compenser pour des demandes cognitives. Lorsque la compétence linguistique en L2 augmente et que les tâches linguistiques exigent ainsi moins d’effort, la demande pour les ressources cognitives diminue. Tel que déjà rapporté (Majerus, et al, 2008; Prat, et al, 2007; Veroude, et al, 2010; Dodel, et al, 2005; Coynel, et al ., 2009), les résultats des analyses de connectivité fonctionnelle montrent qu’après l’entraînement la valeur d'intégration (connectivité fonctionnelle) diminue puisqu’il y a moins de circulation du flux d'information. Les résultats de cette recherche contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des aspects neurocognitifs et de plasticité cérébrale du TIL ainsi que l'impact de la distance linguistique dans l'apprentissage des langues. Ces résultats ont des implications dans les stratégies d'apprentissage d’une L2, les méthodes d’enseignement d’une L2 ainsi que le développement d'approches thérapeutiques chez des patients bilingues qui souffrent de troubles langagiers. / The purpose of this thesis was to study the behavioral and neural correlates of Cross-linguistic Transfer effects (CLT) at the word level, in second language learning. Moreover, given that language distance has an impact on CLT, (Paradis, 1987, 2004, Odlin, 1989, 2004, 2005, Gollan, 2005, Ringbom, 2007), two distinct language pairs were examined: Close language pairs (Spanish-French) and distant language pairs (Persian-French). This thesis comprises three studies. In study I, Spanish speakers and in study II Persian speakers were trained for lexical learning until consolidation level. Cognates (phonologically and semantically similar words), Clangs (phonologically similar words with different meanings), and Non-cognate-non-clangs (semantically similar words), were presented in a picture naming task. Accuracy rates and response times as well as event-related fMRI BOLD responses to each word category were measured. Simple and direct contrasts with phonologically similar and phonologically distant words were performed. Thus, Study I reports the results of close languages (Spanish-French) and Study II, reports the results of distant languages (Persian-French). The neurocognitive processing of language learning was further investigated in terms of networks using functional connectivity analysis in distant languages (Persian-French) and the results are reported in Study III. The Results with the General Linear Model analysis show that with close language pairs (French-Spanish), the processing of phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) relies upon a shared L1-L2 language specific neural areas, whereas processing of phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates), activates L1 language processing areas, but also relies upon working memory, attentional, and processing structures. However, with distant language pairs (French-Persian), even phonologically similar words (cognates and clangs) activate areas known to be involved in attentional processing and cognitive control. Moreover, phonologically distant words (non-clang-non-cognates) also activate areas involved in working memory and executive function processing structures. Thus, the factor of L1-L2 cross-linguistic distance appears to modulate the executive load imposed to the system, on the basis of the degree of phonological overlap between L1-L2 items; thus in order to compensate for more effortful processing demands, the system recruits executive function supporting structures. The results of the connectivity analysis show that, in line with literature (Majerus, et al., 2008; Prat, et al., 2007; Veroude, et al., 2010; Dodel, et al., 2005; Coynel, et al., 2009), when the language proficiency is low, there is enhanced functional connectivity between and within language specific and other cognitive processing (working memory, attentional and cognitive control) networks. However, as proficiency increases, integration values (functional connectivity) decrease. This reflects that language tasks become less effortful and demand less cognitive resources. The results of this dissertation contribute to a better understanding of CLT effects on L2 learning, both in regards to different word types and L1-L2 language distance. These results have implications with regards to L2 learning and teaching strategies and approaches as well as with regards to the development of data-driven therapy approaches in the case of language break down in bilingual population.

Apresenta-se o desenho, construção e caracterização de uma plataforma experimental para a obtenção de imagens magnéticas bidimensionais (2D) geradas pela distribuição não uniforme em gel de vaselina de micro-partículas magnéticas (magnetita- Fe3O4), acomodadas em fantomas magnéticos de geometrias irregulares. A instrumentação é basicamente formada por um arranjo multicanal de 12-sensores magnetorresistivos de última geração (modelo HMC 1001/1002 da Honeywell), os quais convertem os sinais magnéticos, a serem medidas, em voltagens diferenciais, que posteriormente passam-se pela etapa de condicionamento analógico multisinais, e adquiridos por uma placa de aquisição PCI de 16 canais simples, e geradas pelas fontes magnéticas (fantomas) as quais eram posicionadas acima de uma tabua porta-fantoma a qual era acionada por um sistema de posicionamento x-y, utilizando-se dois motores de passo controlados via porta paralela. A obtenção e processamento das imagens de forma automática foi levado acabo por médio da ferramenta computacional SmaGimFM v1.0 (grupo de scripts escritos pelo autor, em LABVIEW v8.1 e Matlab v7.3). A montagem experimental foi desenhada para realizar o scan numa área de ate (20x18) cm2. O sistema consegue medir campos na ordem de poucos nano-teslas (10-9 T). Foi demostrado experimentalmente que: a detectibilidade do sistema está na ordem de 100 pT/?Hz; a resolução, o menor valor da indução magnética detectada e a resolução espacial dos sensores foi aproximadamente de (3±1) nT e (3.0± 0.1) mm, respectivamente, este último obtido para uma distancia sensor-fonte média de (6.0± 0.1) mm. O nível de ruído ambiental médio foi corroborado experimentalmente no valor de 10 nT. O fator de Calibração para todos os sensores alimentados com 8V, foi aproximadamente de 10-6 T/V, confirmando o valor da sensibilidade nominal oferecida pelo vendedor no data-sheet dos sensores. Os multisinais sempre foram pré-processadas para a remoção dos offset, e posteriormente era realizadas uma interpolação bi-cúbica, para gerar imagens magnéticas com uma alta resolução espacial da ordem de (256x256) pixels. A funções de transferência da modulação e espalhamento pontual do sistema foram estudados e os sensores foram espaçados e fixados de acordo com os resultados destes estudos. Nesta tese todas as imagens cruas foram geradas pelo mapeamento da resposta do sistema multicanal de magnetômetros a pequenas distancias e geradas pela presença de micropartículas de magnetita (Fe3O4) não tratada termicamente e dispersada em oitos fantomas planares com geometrias complexas e chamados como: PhMão; PhNum; PhLines; PhCinco; PhTrês; PhCircle; PhQuadSmall e PhQuadBig. As imagens magnéticas de cada um destes fantomas é apresentada. A cada experimento, estes fantomas eram magnetizados pela ação de um pulso magnético uniforme no volume dos fantomas, com um valor aproximadamente de 81.6 mT, e produzido por um sistema de bobinas par de Helmholtz. Para fazer o registro experimental das imagens magnéticas, os fantomas foram posicionados a uma altura fixa em relação aos sensores, e movidos numa direção de scan, assim nos detectores observávamos as voltagens gerados pela variação no campo remanente devido às diferentes concentrações de micro-partículas magnéticas magnetizadas foram medidos e controlados por um computador pessoal. Usando as imagens cruas (imagens ruidosas e borradas) e outras informações a priori, foram obtidas as imagens reconstruídas das fontes do campo magnético, tais como, a distribuição de partículas ferrimagnéticas no interior dos fantomas, a qual é relacionada com a susceptibilidade magnética das amostras. Encontrar as imagens das fontes magnéticas, é resolver o problema magnético associado, e nosso trabalho estas restaurações foram realizadas usando-se os seguintes algoritmos numéricos de deconvolução, filtragem espacial de Wiener e Fourier, o filtragem Pseudo-inversa, o método do gradiente conjugado e os procedimentos de regularização de Tikhonov e Decomposição de Valores singulares truncados, dentre outros. Estes procedimentos foram implementados e testados. As imagens reconstruídas das fontes magnéticas de quatro fantomas são apresentadas. Estas técnicas foram programadas computacionalmente por médio de um conjunto de scripts chamados de SmaGimFM v1.0, estes foram escritos nos linguagens computacionais MATLAB® desde a MathWorks Inc.; e LABVIEW desde a National Instruments Inc. Estes resultados preliminares mostram que o sistema de imagens apresenta potencial para ser aplicada em estudos na área da Física Médica, onde imagens com moderada para alta resolução espacial e baixa amplitude da indução magnética são exigidas. Contudo, podemos afirmar que à distância sensor-fonte é crítica e afeta a resolução das imagens. O sistema é capaz de registrar imagens na ordem de 10-9 T, e sua elevada resolução espacial indica que pode ser testada como uma nova técnica biomagnética para gerar imagens em 2D de partículas magnéticas dentro de objetos, na região do campo próximo, para futuras aplicações médicas / We have designed and build a magnetic imaging system for obtaining experimental noisy and blurred magnetic images from distribution of ferromagnetic tracers (magnetite Fe3O4). The main part of the magnetic imaging system was formed by a linear array composed of 12-magnetoresistive sensors from Honeywell Inc. (HMC 1001). These sensors are microcircuits with a configuration of wheatstone-bridge and convert magnetic fields into differential voltage, which after pass for the multichannel signal stage can be to measure magnetic signals about of 10-9 T. The system is capable of scanning planar samples with dimensions up to (16x18) cm square. A full experimental characterization of the magnetic imaging system was carried out. The calibration factor for all sensor supplied by 8 V, was approximately 10-6 T/V, confirming the data sheet nominal properties from the vendor. The spatial resolution and the resolution of the magnetic imaging system were experimentally confirmed to be 3 mm and 3 nT, respectively. The spectral density noise was about , for the experimental conditions used in these studies. The signals were pre-processed for offset remove and the interpolation for spatial resolution improves and generates images of (256x256) pixels. The point spread and modulation transference functions of multi-sensor system were studied and the sensors were spaced accordingly. In this thesis, all raw images were generated by mapping the response of the magnetoresistive magnetometers multichannel array at short distances due to the presence of uncooked magnetite powder dispersed in eight planar phantoms with complex geometries and called as: PhMão; PhNum; PhLines; PhCinco; PhTrês; PhCircle; PhQuadSmall and PhQuadBig. These phantoms were magnetized by a uniform pulse field of approximately of 81.6 mT produced by a Helmholtz coil system. The samples were moved under the magnetoresistive sensors and the voltages generated by the variation in remanent magnetic field due to different magnetized ferromagnetic particles concentrations were recorded and controlled by a personal computer. Using the experimental noisy and blurred magnetic field images (raw images), and some another, a priori information\'s, the reconstruction of the magnetic field source images, such as, the distribution of ferromagnetic particles inner of the phantoms which are related with magnetic susceptibility, was obtained by various inverse problem solution algorithms\', such as, the spatial Wiener and Fourier filtering, the Pseudo-inverse filtering; the conjugated gradient and Tikhonov and Decomposition of Truncated Singular Values approaches and others. These procedures were implemented by mean of the scripts set called SmaGimFM v1.0, that we developed using the MATLAB® language from MathWorks Inc. A preliminary result shows that this magnetic imaging system join to some deconvolution technique can be considered efficient to be used in functional images of the gastrointestinal tract, where a moderate resolution is required. We can affirm that at a distance sensor-source choose is a critical parameter and affects the resolution of the images; and we can conclude that this magnetic images method can be successfully used to generate planar blurred magnetic images and magnetic field sources images in the near field region at macroscopic level generated by ferromagnetic materials.