MAAS / Centre for African Studies / Zimbabwe launched the Voluntary medical male circumcision programme (VMMC) in November 2009, with the primary aim of curbing sexual transmitted infections (STI’s). In 2010, the district of Mazowe managed to adopt voluntary medical male circumcision programme to curb sexual transmitted infections. It is of concern that the voluntary medical male circumcision programme has been below expectations in Mazowe district. Hence, the aim of the study was to explore the effectiveness of the voluntary medical male circumcision programme among secondary school learners in Mazowe district. Furthermore, the primary goals of the study were firstly check the levels of understanding about the voluntary medical male circumcision programme among secondary school learners in Mazowe district. Secondly, explore the reasons behind the low rate of the voluntary medical male circumcision programme among secondary school learners. Thirdly, investigate whether cultural beliefs influence the learners’ choice. Lastly, recommend possible ways of improving the uptake of the voluntary medical male circumcision programme among secondary school learners in Mazowe district. A qualitative research method used in the study. Also, un-structured interviews and focused group discussions. The researcher conducted interviews using purposeful sampling method on three secondary schools in Mazowe district, Zimbabwe and about forty respondents participated in the study. The study adopted a planned behaviour and person/client centered approaches. The thesis’s conclusions deduced that most of the male respondents are not ready or willing to receive circumcision due to fear of being screened for HIV/AIDS, the cost of the procedure, pain, bleeding, to mention but a few. Furthermore, the researcher identified that in the Shona culture, medical male circumcision is rarely unknown. In addition, the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare must introduce new ways of circumcision to avoid bleeding, pain and must remove the screening of the HIV testing procedure before one is circumcise. Therefore, by these outcomes the Ministry of Child and Health Care Centre will try to find strategies in which they can scale the programme, since the study highlighted that most males are not going for circumcision, hence their lives are in predicament. More so, the study recommends v that researchers must obtain consent and ethical clearance from different relevant place so that data there will not be harm to respondents. Also, there is a need to look for policies in which the government will use to assess strategies to scale the programme, since it is of paramount importance to test the VMMC programme about the impact that it is giving to the community and to find out whether it is helpful or not. More so, in terms of future researchers, there is a need to reconnoiter barriers that hinders males from circumcised. Hence, fourth, this will motivate number of District schools to bring awareness towards males to take part in the programme and prevent males from being susceptible to the infections as recommended by the WHO in 2007. In addition, decentralizing the programme to the community, stakeholders would be able to work hand in hand with the District to make sure that the rate of the VMMC is up and those males take part in the programme willingly. Hence, this will create an efficacy of the programme since all stakeholders and the community will scale up the programme since the priority of all sides will be to scale the programme. Furthermore, clearing misconceptions associated with male learners (witchcraft, pain, bleeding, and religion, to mention but the few), providing them with right mentality about the good side of the programme. In addition, there is a need for the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare to amend new polices that allows free male circumcision, especially in public hospitals, hence, through these amendments, males might be willing to get the services. Lastly but not least, the Department of Education in Zimbabwe must set up tight mechanism for assessment for the programme, especially at secondary and high schools. This will in turn, develop an effective assessment system to see how effective the programme is in the districts. Finally, it is of paramount importance that the National HIV/AIDS council collaborates with the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare in decentralizing the service of the VMMC, since some respondents were concerned that the distance to the service centers were a hindrance for circumcision. / NRF

Gender-based violence (GBV) has reached a state of epidemic proportion globally and in particular in Africa. There have been a few studies that have been conducted on GBV in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lesotho, situated in the heart of South Africa has one of the highest prevalence of GBV. An Ecological Framework by the WHO has divided the risk factors into individual, relationship, community and societal factors. Lebollo is overlapping with most factors but it is mainly an exclusive entity. Lebollo is the cultural circumcision of men and the most common cultural practice amongst Basotho men. Lebollo influences gender roles, normative perceptions and the behaviour of Basotho men. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of Lebollo on men’s perceptions on women beating in Lesotho. A cross-sectional study that is based on the DHS survey of Lesotho 2014 was used in this study. Basotho men, ages 15-55, with a sample size of 2921, were selected through a two-stage cluster sampling and completing a standardized questionnaire. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to analyse the data. Lebollo was not significantly associated with weakly rejecting GBV perceptions. This was the finding after adjusting for education and socioeconomic factors, that Lebollo was significantly associated with weakly rejecting GBV perceptions. Age, religion, education, wealth and Livential area were identified to affect men’s perceptions of GBV. Most men agreed to women beating with the justification of arguing with her husband. When the Null hypothesis was considered, it was found that Lebollo does not influence the GBV perceptions of men in Lesotho. This is in view of the fact that education and wealth was found to be the strongest predictors and influenced the association between Lebollo and women beating justification (confounders). The Legal and education system of Lesotho including Lebollo needs to be restructured and monitored.

Research studies have revealed that male circumcision (MC) reduces the transmission of HIV infection from infected women to circumcised men by up to 60% (UNAIDS 2007:2), hence the adoption of MC as an HIV-infection prevention strategy by the United Nations (WHO 2007:2). Botswana, a sub-Saharan African (SSA) country, has HIV as a leading health and developmental challenge. The government adopted male circumcision as one of the strategies to combat the infection. Apparently, not all tribes in Botswana practise male circumcision as part of their culture. The purpose of this study was to develop and describe a model for HIV-infection prevention using MC. Three theory-generating research objectives were used to develop the model, namely to explore and describe perceptions of men regarding the use of MC, to develop and describe a model for MC service delivery, and to develop and describe guidelines for service providers to facilitate delivery of MC. A theory-generating research design which is qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and contextual was used to develop the model in three phases. Phase 1 involved concept identification, concept definition, and concept classification. Data was collected using focus group discussions and individual in-depth interviews among 38 men aged 18-49 years and analysed according to recommendations made by Tesch (1990), as cited in Creswell (2009:186). Four themes emerged in the study, namely perceived effects on values, perceived source and provision of information, perceived knowledge of benefits of male circumcision, and perceived risks of male circumcision. The concept of “culture congruence” was derived from the themes as the main concept for the development of a “culture-congruent MC model for HIV prevention”. Phase 2 involved a description of the structure and the process of the model, by organising the concepts in relation to one another. The model was also evaluated. Phase 3 of the model involved the development of guidelines to support health service providers to provide MC services in a culture-congruent way in preventing HIV infection. Recommendations made were incorporation of transcultural health care instruction in nursing and medicine curricula, research on secondary audiences, such as women, and application of a culture-congruent MC model among diverse cultures. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Research studies have revealed that male circumcision (MC) reduces the transmission of HIV infection from infected women to circumcised men by up to 60% (UNAIDS 2007:2), hence the adoption of MC as an HIV-infection prevention strategy by the United Nations (WHO 2007:2). Botswana, a sub-Saharan African (SSA) country, has HIV as a leading health and developmental challenge. The government adopted male circumcision as one of the strategies to combat the infection. Apparently, not all tribes in Botswana practise male circumcision as part of their culture. The purpose of this study was to develop and describe a model for HIV-infection prevention using MC. Three theory-generating research objectives were used to develop the model, namely to explore and describe perceptions of men regarding the use of MC, to develop and describe a model for MC service delivery, and to develop and describe guidelines for service providers to facilitate delivery of MC. A theory-generating research design which is qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and contextual was used to develop the model in three phases. Phase 1 involved concept identification, concept definition, and concept classification. Data was collected using focus group discussions and individual in-depth interviews among 38 men aged 18-49 years and analysed according to recommendations made by Tesch (1990), as cited in Creswell (2009:186). Four themes emerged in the study, namely perceived effects on values, perceived source and provision of information, perceived knowledge of benefits of male circumcision, and perceived risks of male circumcision. The concept of “culture congruence” was derived from the themes as the main concept for the development of a “culture-congruent MC model for HIV prevention”. Phase 2 involved a description of the structure and the process of the model, by organising the concepts in relation to one another. The model was also evaluated. Phase 3 of the model involved the development of guidelines to support health service providers to provide MC services in a culture-congruent way in preventing HIV infection. Recommendations made were incorporation of transcultural health care instruction in nursing and medicine curricula, research on secondary audiences, such as women, and application of a culture-congruent MC model among diverse cultures. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

The question regarding male circumcision in Sweden became a relevant topic within the public debates during the last three years. Due to the Swedish political party, Centerpartiet’s decision to strive for a ban on male circumcision, this debate surfaced after the 28th of September. Participation in the public debate came from different directions and perspectives on male circumcision. In this thesis I focus on different actors and their public opinions in debate articles published between the years of 2018-2019. The aim of this thesis is to examine how critical arguments are constructed from perceptions of a decreasing significance of religion within late modern societies. This results in a motivation to ban the performance of male circumcision without medical indication. By using the qualitative text analysis of systematic text condensation this thesis closer categorizes the arguments into the three themes of “children’s bodily integrity”, “the delimitation of medicalization” and “the religious other”. In addition to this, the thesis also looks into the argument from the analytical framework on argumentation analysis in order to distinguish “normative” and “factual” arguments in the debate. To look closer at the constructions of the critical arguments within the debate this thesis uses the theoretical framework of Sara Ahmed (2011). From a phenomenological inspired perspective this thesis further looks into the argument’s correlation and construction of a collective body. This in particular is the construction of the secular- in relation to the religious body. Constructions of the religious body allows for secular ideas to circulate around national symbols and principles, which results in an exclusion of religious motives and perspectives. The thesis further sheds light on the cultural imbedded “medical gaze”, from the theoretical perspective on medicalization of Karin Johannisson (2013). This thesis aims to examine the reproduction of the medical superiority within debates on questions regarding the human body, like the one on male circumcision. The thesis illustrates the complexity of religious visibility within the Swedish context. Although the critical arguments reject the religious motives of male circumcision, the debate increases the religious visibility in the public debates.

This thesis examines the discourse strategies used to construct initiation schools in online media and message boards. The focus is on understanding the tensions that come with enacting traditional practices in the face of modernity and its associated cultural expectations. The thesis describes the manner in which these tensions are constructed in text by the media in news reports and participants in discussion forums. While there is still debate around whether the internet will revolutionise public participation and create a digital utopia; the internet is acknowledged as one of the widest reaching sources of information and entertainment. Specifically, the internet provides a platform to challenge the traditionally top-down communication between the elite, who have privileged access to the media, and the general public, who were previously constructed as passive recipients of information. Using the male circumcision initiation rite, this thesis examines how the South African public discursively constructs the epistemic location of African traditions in South Africa. The study drew on a sample of news articles from the News24 site, the largest news site in South Africa, ranging from January 2008 to December 2013. A corpus of 62 articles were analysed using the Critical Discourse Analysis technique described by Teun van Dijk. The findings of the thesis were that the initiation rite is used as a rhetorical tool to argue for the abandonment of African cultural practices in favour of modern, Western influenced beliefs and values. The findings also indicate that the initiation rite is reduced to the act of circumcision in the media by focusing on the injury and deaths of the initiates and excluding the meaning of the rite as a meaningful cultural practice. The conclusion of the thesis challenges the epistemicide committed against the male circumcision initiation rite from within the Decolonial school of thought, which critically examines everyday interaction for universalising, normative language that aims to commit cultural epistemicide to reinforce the white, male, European, Christian traditions of masculinity. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

This study investigated the social factors influencing the poor uptake of HIV Testing and Counselling (HCT) services by middle-aged black men in Pimville, Soweto. A qualitative research approach was used for this study in which ten men and two key informants were interviewed. Themes explored were the participants’ biographical characteristics, knowledge of HIV and AIDS, health-seeking behaviours, understanding of multiple sexual partnerships, male circumcision, and challenges in using HCT services. Various social behaviour change theories formed the theoretical framework guiding this study. It was found that fear, stigma and cultural factors are major reasons for the poor HCT uptake. Despite the men’s high HIV risk perceptions, behaviour change lags behind. Greater efforts to establish a men’s forum to discuss sexual health matters in Pimville are recommended. / Sociology / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)

This study investigated the social factors influencing the poor uptake of HIV Testing and Counselling (HCT) services by middle-aged black men in Pimville, Soweto. A qualitative research approach was used for this study in which ten men and two key informants were interviewed. Themes explored were the participants’ biographical characteristics, knowledge of HIV and AIDS, health-seeking behaviours, understanding of multiple sexual partnerships, male circumcision, and challenges in using HCT services. Various social behaviour change theories formed the theoretical framework guiding this study. It was found that fear, stigma and cultural factors are major reasons for the poor HCT uptake. Despite the men’s high HIV risk perceptions, behaviour change lags behind. Greater efforts to establish a men’s forum to discuss sexual health matters in Pimville are recommended. / Sociology / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)

This thesis examines the discourse strategies used to construct initiation schools in online media and message boards. The focus is on understanding the tensions that come with enacting traditional practices in the face of modernity and its associated cultural expectations. The thesis describes the manner in which these tensions are constructed in text by the media in news reports and participants in discussion forums. While there is still debate around whether the internet will revolutionise public participation and create a digital utopia; the internet is acknowledged as one of the widest reaching sources of information and entertainment. Specifically, the internet provides a platform to challenge the traditionally top-down communication between the elite, who have privileged access to the media, and the general public, who were previously constructed as passive recipients of information. Using the male circumcision initiation rite, this thesis examines how the South African public discursively constructs the epistemic location of African traditions in South Africa. The study drew on a sample of news articles from the News24 site, the largest news site in South Africa, ranging from January 2008 to December 2013. A corpus of 62 articles were analysed using the Critical Discourse Analysis technique described by Teun van Dijk. The findings of the thesis were that the initiation rite is used as a rhetorical tool to argue for the abandonment of African cultural practices in favour of modern, Western influenced beliefs and values. The findings also indicate that the initiation rite is reduced to the act of circumcision in the media by focusing on the injury and deaths of the initiates and excluding the meaning of the rite as a meaningful cultural practice. The conclusion of the thesis challenges the epistemicide committed against the male circumcision initiation rite from within the Decolonial school of thought, which critically examines everyday interaction for universalising, normative language that aims to commit cultural epistemicide to reinforce the white, male, European, Christian traditions of masculinity. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

This study investigated social contextual factors influencing poor uptake of HIV counselling and testing (HCT) services by middle-aged black men in Ratanda, Heidelberg. A qualitative research approach was used in which ten men and two key informants were interviewed. Themes explored were the participants’ biographical characteristics; knowledge of HIV and AIDS; health-seeking behaviours; understanding of multiple sexual partnerships and male circumcision and challenges in utilising HCT services. Various social behaviour change theories formed the theoretical framework guiding this study. It was found that fear, stigma and cultural factors largely contributed to poor HCT uptake. Moreover despite the men’s high HIV risk perceptions, behaviour change lags behind. Greater efforts to establish a men’s forum to discuss sexual health matters in Ratanda is recommended. / Health Studies / M.A. (Social Behaviour Studies in HIV/AIDS)