Compliance is a key feature for the management of non-consumptive wildlife viewing, as it can link management measures to performance and aid in developing recommendations that promote sustainable practices. Whale watching is a prominent wildlife viewing industry that is steadily rising in demand around the world. Managing vessel-cetacean encounters and operator behaviour (both commercial and recreational) is key to limiting impacts on cetaceans, yet the scale of regulatory compliance is often poor or unknown. Although efforts exist to regulate whale watching, challenges arise for the assessment of compliance in marine environments, as they are inherently spatially vast, lack physical boundaries, and can involve mobile stressors (i.e. vessels) and species. Chapter 1 reviews the shift in paradigms from consumptive to non-consumptive activities and highlights challenges for those tasked with managing the growing wildlife tourism industry, and in particular, whale watching. After reviewing a suite of measures prevalent around the world, this chapter then focuses on the Salish Sea’s approach to managing whale watching. This area epitomizes a major whale watching hub and displays complex, multi-jurisdictional and constantly evolving measures. Due to a lack of knowledge in this region, Chapter 2 shifts from theory to practice and assesses regulatory compliance with marine mammal distance regulations from 2018 to 2019 in the Salish Sea. Although compliance was nearly 80%, key drivers including vessel and species type were found to significantly influence non-compliance. Recreational vessels were non-compliant 41.9% of the time and 74.2% of non-compliant encounters occurred around killer whales across both years. The findings of the study demonstrate that case-specific investigation of compliance is necessary as each region is unique in its approach to management. Lastly, recommendations are proposed that can benefit marine managers and policymakers to enhance the performance of measures and subsequently minimize risk to cetaceans. / Graduate

Muscle samples from 105 marine mammals stranded along the Oregon-Washington coasts (2002-2009) were tested for levels of total mercury by Cold Vapor Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry. The total mercury present is predominantly in the form of highly toxic methylmercury. After normalizing muscle tissue to 75% water weight, due to variance in water content, Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) and northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) exhibited the highest mean concentrations of total mercury followed by harbor seals (Phoca vitulina), harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus); 0.34 ± 0.278, 0.34 ± 0.485, 0.21 ± 0.216, 0.17 ± 0.169 and 0.15 ± 0.126 mg/kg normalized weight, respectively. Mean normalized values demonstrated limited muscle methylmercury accumulation in these species in the Pacific Northwest. Normalizing muscle mercury concentrations eliminated variability from desiccation, and allowed for a clearer indication of the amount of mercury the animal accumulated before stranding. However, actual wet weight concentrations in some of the stranded carcasses were high enough to pose a risk to scavengers.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Joint Program in Oceanography/Applied Ocean Science and Engineering (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Biology; and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), 2008. / Includes bibliographical references. / In this thesis, I provide quantitative descriptions of toothed whale echolocation and foraging behavior, including assessment of the effects of noise on foraging behavior and the potential influence of ocean acoustic propagation conditions on biosonar detection ranges and whale noise exposure. In addition to presenting some novel basic science findings, the case studies presented in this thesis have implications for future work and for management. In Chapter 2, I describe the application of a modified version of the Dtag to studies of harbor porpoise echolocation behavior. The study results indicate how porpoises vary the rate and level of their echolocation clicks during prey capture events; detail the differences in echolocation behavior between different animals and in response to differences in prey fish; and show that, unlike bats, porpoises continue their echolocation buzz after the moment of prey capture. Chapters 3-4 provide case studies that emphasize the importance of applying realistic models of ocean acoustic propagation in marine mammal studies. These chapters illustrate that, although using geometric spreading approximations to predict communication/target detection ranges or noise exposure levels is appropriate in some cases, it can result in large errors in other cases, particularly in situations where refraction in the water column or multi-path acoustic propagation are significant. Finally, in Chapter 5, I describe two methods for statistical analysis of whale behavior data, the rotation test and a semi-Markov chain model. I apply those methods to test for changes in sperm whale foraging behavior in response to airgun noise exposure. Test results indicate that, despite the low-level exposures experienced by the whales in the study, some (but not all) of them reduced their buzz production rates and altered other foraging behavior parameters in response to the airgun exposure. / by Stacy Lynn DeRuiter. / Ph.D.

abstract: Biodiversity is required to guarantee proper ecosystem structure and function. However, increasing anthropogenic threats are causing biodiversity loss around the world at an unprecedented rate, in what has been deemed the sixth mass extinction. To counteract this crisis, conservationists seek to improve the methods used in the design and implementation of protected areas, which help mitigate the impacts of human activities on species. Marine mammals are ecosystem engineers and important indicator species of ocean and human wellbeing. They are also disproportionally less known and more threatened than terrestrial mammals. Therefore, surrogates of biodiversity must be used to maximize their representation in conservation planning. Some of the most effective surrogates of biodiversity known have only been tested in terrestrial systems. Here I test complementarity, rarity, and environmental diversity as potential surrogates of marine mammal representation at the global scale, and compare their performance against species richness, which is the most popular surrogate used to date. I also present the first map of marine mammal complementarity, and assess its relationship with environmental variables to determine if environmental factors could also be used as surrogates. Lastly, I determine the global complementarity-based hotspots of marine mammal biodiversity, and compare their distributions against current marine protected area coverage and exposure to global indices of human threats, to elucidate the effectiveness of current conservation efforts. Results show that complementarity, rarity, and environmental diversity are all efficient surrogates, as they outcompete species richness in maximizing marine mammal species representation when solving the minimum-set coverage problem. Results also show that sea surface temperature, density, and bathymetry are the top environmental variables most associated with complementarity of marine mammals. Finally, gap analyses show that marine mammals are overall poorly protected, yet moderately exposed to hotspots of cumulative human impacts. The wide distribution of marine mammals justify global studies like the ones here presented, to determine the best strategy for their protection. Overall, my findings show that less popular surrogates of biodiversity are more effective for marine mammals and should be considered in their management, and that the expansion of protected areas in their most important habitats should be prioritized. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2019

Wherever wildlife share space with boaters, collisions are a potential source of mortality. Establishing protection and speed zones are the primary actions taken to mitigate collision risk. However, creation of protection zones may be a point of contention with stakeholders as new zones can have significant socioeconomic impacts. The Florida Manatee is a prime example of a species whose abundance and viability are constrained by this balance between the needs of humans and wildlife on a shared landscape. The goal of this work is to help further understand the risk to manatees by quantifying the probability of lethal collisions. I hypothesized that higher boat speeds increase the probability of lethal injury to manatee during a collision and aimed to characterize the relationship between vessel speed and the probability of lethal injury to manatee. I used a logistic regression model implemented with a Bayesian approach and fitted to citizen reported collision data as a feasible method for examining the influence of vessel speed in contributing to lethal injury to a manatee when struck. I also present a method for dealing with uncertainty in data used to report collisions. To conduct this analysis, I used citizen reported collision data. These data are typically collected opportunistically, suffer from low sample sizes, and have uncertainty in reported vessel speeds. Uncertainty associated with speed values in reported collision events was assessed by performing a multiple imputation to replace qualitative vessel speed – in other words, “missing data” – with quantitative values. This procedure involves fitting log-normal distributions to radar data that contained precise vessel speeds along with a physical description like ‘planing’, ‘plowing’, or ‘idle’. For each imputation of the data, a quantitative value was selected randomly from that distribution and used in place of its initial corresponding speed category. I evaluated issues related to quasi-separation and model fit using simulated data sets to explore the importance of sample size and evaluated the effect of key sources of error. The prediction that greater strike speed increases the probability of lethal injury was supported by the data that I analyze

This thesis presents a methodology for modelling underwater sound propagation from seismic airgun surveys. Subsequently, the method is applied to the case of predicting noise levels from offshore oil and gas exploration in the Queen Charlotte Basin region of the British Columbia offshore. Underwater noise levels are predicted using an integrated mod¬elling approach that incorporates (i) an airgun array source model. (ii) a broadband 3-D transmission loss model, and (iii) environmental databases of high resolution bathymetry. historical CTD casts and geoacoustic properties of the seabed. As part of this thesis, an airgun array source signature model is developed and then used for predicting the acoustic source level of a seismic airgun array. The airgun model, based on the physics of the oscillation and radiation of airgun bubbles, is validated against real airgun data. Under-water sound propagation is modelled in three dimensions using a parabolic-equation (PE) based, "Nx2-D" transmission loss model. Broadband sound propagation is approximated by modelling acoustic transmission loss at third-octave band centre frequencies; noise levels are computed by subtracting transmission loss from the respective third-octave band airgun array source levels. High resolution bathymetry and geoacoustic data for Queen Charlotte Basin are extracted along centrolineal radial transects for input to the propagation model. Additionally, principal component analysis is applied to a large collection of historical CTD data to extract seasonal sound speed profile variations. Transmission loss is modelled using both winter and summer sound speed profiles to bracket seasonal variations in acoustic propagation conditions. Noise level estimates from the acoustic modelling may be used to determine impact zones around the survey vessel where marine mammals are expected to exhibit disturbance reactions to airgun noise. Results from this study will aid in evaluating the potential environmental impacts of seismic exploration activity on marine ecosystems in British Columbia's offshore region.

The release of 260 kg of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by a military radar station into Saglek Bay (Labrador) in the eastern Canadian Arctic contaminated adjacent marine sediments, and some fish, seabirds, and ringed seals. However, attributing the PCBs found in high trophic level and highly mobile marine mammals to any point source is, in most cases, impossible. This thesis demonstrated the extent to which a local PCB source at Saglek Bay led to the contamination and health effects in ringed seals. The dominance of PCBs at this contaminated marine site afforded a unique opportunity to evaluate the effects of this single class of industrial chemical in a manner that has not been previously possible in marine mammals. We used a variety of tools to characterize the contribution of local PCB contamination in the Labrador ringed seal food web. These tools included: 1) univariate and multivariate statistical exploration of contaminant patterns; 2) stable isotope ratios and fatty acid signatures to describe feeding ecology; and 3) satellite telemetry to track the movements of seals on the coast. Divergent PCB congener profiles and contaminant ratios enabled an assignment of seals into either ‘local’ or ‘long-range’ categories, with up to 60% of ringed seals sampled exhibiting patterns consistent with the local source. PCB concentrations in locally-contaminated adult males were 2-fold higher than in those exposed only to long-range PCB sources. Seals with smaller home ranges had an increased likelihood of feeding on prey contaminated by the local PCB source. Similar fatty acid profiles between those seals with ‘local’ PCB profiles and those with ‘long-range’ or background profiles indicate little support for the possibility that differential feeding ecologies explained the divergent PCB profiles. Ringed seals fed predominantly on zooplankton (Mysis oculata and Themisto libellula), dusky snailfish (Liparis gibbus) and arctic cod (Boreogadus saida). Heavier PCB profiles in the Saglek food web, compared to the same species exposed to only background contaminants, provided additional insight into the mechanisms of localized PCB contamination of some Labrador ringed seals. In addition to ascertaining the importance of a point source to contamination in ringed seals, we assessed the effects of PCBs on their health through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay. Levels of mRNA transcripts for five gene targets, including aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), interleukin-1 beta (Il1b), estrogen receptor alpha (Esr1), insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (Igf1) and glucocorticoid receptor alpha (Nr3c1), correlated with increasing levels of PCBs, indicating an effect of this persistent organic pollutant (POP) in these seals. Threshold values were calculated for these five genes, with the most conservative value being 1,380 ng/g lipid weight (lw). Approximately 14% of the seals sampled exceeded this threshold, suggesting a risk of adverse effects in a proportion of the local population attributed to PCBs. While the implications for these sublethal molecular changes at the individual or population level are unclear, contaminant-related changes in endocrine, immune, and molecular endpoints have been observed in ringed seals from the Baltic Sea exhibiting reproductive and developments abnormalities, and virus epizootics. Results of this study improve our understanding of the effects of PCBs in free-ranging marine mammals and provide new information needed to inform mitigation and monitoring efforts, both for ringed seals in the north and other seals around the world. / Graduate / 0306 / 0768 / 0383 / tanya@raincoast.org

Mysticetes, or baleen whales, make up one of two sub-orders of the Order Cetacea within the Class Mammalia (Drikamer et al, 2013). It contains three families, each characterized by baleen plates (Drikamer et al, 2013). These baleen plates consist of keratin that replaced the tooth structures for feeding in these mammals (Drikamer et al, 2013). Other biological characteristics of these animals include paired external nares (blowholes), a sternum consisting of a single bone, symmetrical skull and the most conspicuous of all, the body length of between ten to thirty metres (Drikamer et al, 2013). It is thought that the size characteristic was probably the main factor when categorising them as cetaceans, with the Latin word ‘Cetus’ referring to ‘sea monster’ (Carnaby, 2006). In this literature review, the focus will fall on two species of mysticetes from separate families, namely that of the southern right whale, Eubalaena australis of the Balaenidae family, and the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae of the Balaenopteridae family. Emphasis in this review will fall on the aspect of site fidelity of the mother-calf pairs.

La mise en place d'objectifs de conservation adéquats repose sur la définition d'états de référence appropriés pour la distribution et l'abondance des espèces. Cependant, l'étendue des impacts cumulés de l'homme sur les écosystèmes est aujourd'hui largement sous-estimée. Dans ce projet, je m'intéresse aux opportunités qu'offre l'utilisation de données historiques combinées à différentes méthodes analytiques pour définir ces états de référence ainsi qu'aux défis posés par ce type d'approche. Des données de présence ont été recueillies pour sept espèces de cétacés et trois espèces de pinnipèdes à partir de sources archéologiques, historiques et industrielles, révélant des réductions dans la distribution et l'abondance des espèces depuis la préhistoire à nos jours. Des modèles de distribution d'espèces ont été développés pour cinq espèces de cétacés, combinant des données de chasse baleinière du 19ème siècle à des variables environnementales afin d'estimer la distribution historique des espèces avant qu'elles n'aient été chassées. J'ai obtenu pour la baleine franche de l'Atlantique Nord (Eubalena glacialis) une estimation détaillée de sa distribution et de son abondance avant qu'elle ne soit exploitée, en extrapolant des connaissances sur la distribution et l'abondance d'une espèce congénérique, la baleine franche du Pacifique Nord (E. japonica). Ces résultats suggèrent que la baleine franche de l'Atlantique Nord occupe une portion réduite de sa distribution historique, et que son abondance actuelle ne représente qu'une infime portion (<5%) de son abondance passée. Plus généralement, ces résultats soulignent l'importance de considérer des données historiques pour comprendre le niveau d'impact par l'homme sur les espèces, évaluer leur niveau de déplétion et renseigner leur potentiel de rétablissement dans l'avenir. / Relevant baselines on the historical distribution and abundance of species are needed to support appropriate conservation targets for depleted species, but the full scale of cumulative human impacts on ecosystems is highly underestimated. In this project, I investigated the challenges and opportunities of combining historical data with analytical methods to improve these historical baselines. Occurrence data from archaeological, historical and industrial sources were reviewed for seven cetacean and three pinniped species, revealing range contractions and population depletions from prehistorical times to today. For five whale species, I used species distribution modelling to combine 19th Century whaling records with environmental data, to estimate pre-whaling distributions. For the highly depleted North Atlantic right whale, (Eubalaena glacialis), I obtained a detailed estimate of pre-whaling distribution and abundance by inferring from the historical distribution and abundance of its congeneric North Pacific right whale (E. japonica). These results suggest that the North Atlantic right whale occupies a small fraction of its historical range and that its current population represents <5% of its historical abundance, with implications for the management, monitoring and conservation targets of this species. More generally, these results emphasize the utility of considering historical data to understand the extent to which species have been impacted by humans, assess their current level of depletion, and inform the options available for their future recovery.

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