Ao longo dos tempos, os cetáceos têm estado metaforicamente próximos à espécie humana o que tem revelado uma inter-relação ambígua, uma vez que podem evocar imagens de inteligência e mistério ao mesmo tempo em que servem como fonte de subsistência e de exploração econômica. Sem dúvida alguma, a relação positiva entre homens e cetáceos atingiu seu ápice na antiga civilização grega e prova disso são os registros históricos das lendas e mitos relacionados aos golfinhos. Por outro lado, sabe-se que a caça a baleia é uma atividade muito antiga praticada desde a pré-história por povos antigos. Os dias atuais ainda refletem a ambigüidade da relação homem/cetáceo. Contudo, as descobertas científicas das últimas décadas trouxeram a possibilidade de um relacionamento positivo com esses animais, especialmente no que se refere ao turismo de observação em contraposição à continuidade/retorno da caça comercial. Em vários lugares do mundo encontramos diferentes comunidades tradicionais que mantém um relacionamento de admiração e respeito com os cetáceos, gerando um conhecimento aprimorado sobre diferentes aspectos de sua biologia e ecologia. Sob as luzes interdisciplinares da etnociência, deu-se continuidade e ampliou-se o estudo das relações e conexões entre pescadores caiçaras tradicionais e as espécies de cetáceos ocorrentes ao longo do Complexo estuarino-lagunar de Cananéia. Os resultados indicam que os caiçaras são capazes de perceber e prever mudanças climáticas, classificar e localizar espacialmente organismos marinhos e elaborar complexas cadeias tróficas. Apresentam uma percepção acurada com relação à biologia e ecologia do boto Sotalia guianensis (CETACEA; DELPHINIDAE), especialmente em relação ao comportamento, hábitos alimentares e reprodutivos da espécie, e possuem um conhecimento generalizado sobre outros mamíferos aquáticos. A transmissão cultural desse conhecimento ocorre de forma vertical (entre gerações) e também de forma horizontal (dentro da mesma geração). A comunidade caiçara de Cananéia deve ser devidamente incorporada aos processos decisórios relacionados ao tema sócio-ambiental, bem como, nas tomadas de decisão relacionadas ao gerenciamento das atividades turísticas visando à promoção da prática de um turismo participativo e de base sustentável. Esse envolvimento deve ser planejado e avaliado de forma intensamente participativa, respeitando-se os critérios legislativos e também aqueles estabelecidos pelos próprios representantes dessas comunidades. As questões relacionadas à área sócio-ambiental devem ser tratadas de forma interdisciplinar com a finalidade de se compor um cenário cooperativo para a construção de propostas participativas que não criem condições de exclusão das comunidades, mas sim, as incorpore no processo de forma a se respeitar e valorizar os seus saberes e fazeres tradicionais. Novos modelos de propostas conservacionistas interdisciplinares devem ser construídos de forma a promover a inclusão sócio-ambiental das comunidades tradicionais, evitando assim, conflitos e má utilização de Unidades de Conservação. Respeitar o conhecimento e a cultura caiçara local torna-se fundamental para que se tenha a dimensão exata das estratégias de conservação das espécies e ecossistemas do Lagamar. / Throughout the years, cetaceans have been metaphorically close to humans, and this has revealed an ambiguous inter-relationship, since they may evoke images of intelligence and mystery at the same time they are sources of subsistence and economic exploration. Undoubtedly, the positive human-cetacean relation has peaked during the ancient Greek civilization, as proven by historical records of dolphin-related legends and myths. On the other hand, it is known that the whale hunting is a very old activity, practiced since the pre-history by ancient civilizations. Current days still reflects this ambiguity between human and cetaceans. However, the scientific discoveries of the last decades have brought a possibility of a positive relationship with these animals, especially about the whale watching in opposition to the continuance/return of the commercial hunting. It can be found in several places of the world traditional communities that keep an admiration and respect relationship with these animals, creating and improving knowledge about different aspects of their biology and ecology. Under the interdisciplinary lights of etnoscience, the continuity and enlargement of the study of the relations and conexions between traditional caiçaras fishermen and the cetaceans' species that occurs in the "Complexo Estuarino-Lagunar de Cananéia" have been established. Our results show the ability of caiçaras to notice and anticipate climatological changes, classify and locate marine organisms and elaborate complex trofic chains. They have and accurate perception in relation to the biology and ecology of the estuarine dolphin, Sotalia guianensis (CETACEA; DELPHINIDAE), especially about their behavior, reproductive and feeding habits, and have also a general knowledge about other species of aquatic mammals. The transmission of cultural knowledge occurs in a vertical manner (between generations) and in a horizontal manner (in the same generation). The Cananéia's caiçara community must be properly incorporated to the resolution process related to environmental themes, such as in the decisions related to the management of touristic activities intending to promote participative and self-sustained tourism. This involvement must be planned and valued in a very participative way, respecting the legal rules and also, the ones established by the people that represents these communities. The questions related to the environmental area must be treated in an interdisciplinary way, aiming the construction of a cooperative scene, to build a participative proposal that don't excludes the communities, but keep them incorporated to the creation process, respecting and valorizing their traditional knowledge and actions. New models of interdisciplinary conservacionist proposals must be building, intending to promote the environmental inclusion of traditional communities, avoiding conflicts and bad uses of forest preserve. Keep the respect is fundamental to the local caiçara's knowledge and culture. That is the way to gain the exact dimension of the conservation strategies of Lagamar's species and ecosystem.

At Cape Gantheaume, Kangaroo Island (South Australia), adult male, lactating female and juvenile New Zealand (NZ) and Australian fur seals regularly return to the same colony, creating the potential for intra- and inter-specific foraging competition in nearby waters. I hypothesised that these demographic groups would exhibit distinct foraging strategies, which reduce competition and facilitate their coexistence. I analysed the diet of adult male, adult female and juvenile NZ fur seals and adult male Australian fur seals and studied the diving behaviour of adult male and lactating female NZ fur seals and the at-sea movements of juvenile, adult male and lactating female NZ fur seals. Female diet reflected that of a generalist predator, influenced by prey availability and their dependant pups� fasting abilities. In contrast, adult male NZ and Australian fur seals used larger and more energy-rich prey, most likely because they could more efficiently access and handle such prey. Juvenile fur seals primarily utilised small lantern fish, which occur south of the shelf break, in pelagic waters. Juveniles undertook the longest foraging trips and adult males conducted more lengthy trips than lactating females, which perform relatively brief trips in order to regularly nurse their pups. Unlike lactating females, some adult males appeared to rest underwater by performing dives that were characterised by a period of passive drifting through the water column. The large body sizes of adult males and lactating females facilitated the use of both benthic and pelagic habitats, but adult males dived deeper and for longer than lactating females, facilitating vertical separation of their foraging habitats. Spatial overlap in foraging habitats among the age/sex groups was minimal, because lactating females typically utilised continental shelf waters and males used deeper water over the shelf break, beyond female foraging grounds. Furthermore, juveniles used pelagic waters, up to 1000 km south of the regions used by lactating females and adult males. The age and sex groups in this study employed dramatically different strategies to maximise their survival and reproductive success. Their prey and foraging habitats are likely to be shaped by body size differences, which determine their different physiological constraints and metabolic requirements. I suggest that these physiological constraints and the lactation constraints on females are the primary factors that reduce competition, thereby facilitating niche partitioning.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Aberdeen, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references. Available in PDF format via the World Wide Web.

At Cape Gantheaume, Kangaroo Island (South Australia), adult male, lactating female and juvenile New Zealand (NZ) and Australian fur seals regularly return to the same colony, creating the potential for intra- and inter-specific foraging competition in nearby waters. I hypothesised that these demographic groups would exhibit distinct foraging strategies, which reduce competition and facilitate their coexistence. I analysed the diet of adult male, adult female and juvenile NZ fur seals and adult male Australian fur seals and studied the diving behaviour of adult male and lactating female NZ fur seals and the at-sea movements of juvenile, adult male and lactating female NZ fur seals. Female diet reflected that of a generalist predator, influenced by prey availability and their dependant pups� fasting abilities. In contrast, adult male NZ and Australian fur seals used larger and more energy-rich prey, most likely because they could more efficiently access and handle such prey. Juvenile fur seals primarily utilised small lantern fish, which occur south of the shelf break, in pelagic waters. Juveniles undertook the longest foraging trips and adult males conducted more lengthy trips than lactating females, which perform relatively brief trips in order to regularly nurse their pups. Unlike lactating females, some adult males appeared to rest underwater by performing dives that were characterised by a period of passive drifting through the water column. The large body sizes of adult males and lactating females facilitated the use of both benthic and pelagic habitats, but adult males dived deeper and for longer than lactating females, facilitating vertical separation of their foraging habitats. Spatial overlap in foraging habitats among the age/sex groups was minimal, because lactating females typically utilised continental shelf waters and males used deeper water over the shelf break, beyond female foraging grounds. Furthermore, juveniles used pelagic waters, up to 1000 km south of the regions used by lactating females and adult males. The age and sex groups in this study employed dramatically different strategies to maximise their survival and reproductive success. Their prey and foraging habitats are likely to be shaped by body size differences, which determine their different physiological constraints and metabolic requirements. I suggest that these physiological constraints and the lactation constraints on females are the primary factors that reduce competition, thereby facilitating niche partitioning.

As plastic pollution increases, top marine predators such as marine mammals are becoming increasingly susceptible to plastic particles and their additives. Plastic particles have been found in gastrointestinal tracts and scat of many marine mammals, and quantifying plastic pollution in those that are pelagic can provide insight into plastic pollution in mesopelagic ecosystems that are just beginning to be analyzed. Adapting well-developed laboratory techniques for microplastic (MP) isolation (i.e. density separation and chemical digestion), I isolated MPs from the scat of the deepest diving pinniped, the northern elephant seal (NES), and found that100% of scat samples (n=11) contained high counts of MPs compared to other pinnipeds. Further, as plastic particles move through the digestive tract and potentially translocate into the circulation, body cells may be exposed to these plastic particles. Nanoplastics (NPs;<1μm) have been shown to affect cell viability and redox homeostasis in fish and human cells, while the lipophilic additives bisphenol-a (BPA) and bisphenol-s (BPS) used in plastics production are known endocrine disruptors. However, the effects of plastics (NPs) and plastics additives (BPA and BPS) have not been well-studied in marine mammals. To assess the direct impacts of NPs on marine mammal cells, I exposed fibroblasts isolated from NES skin (n=6 experiments) to polystyrene NPs of two different sizes (0.05μm and 0.5μm) and concentrations (3.64x109 and 3.64x1010 particles/mL) and did not find consistent effects on morphology and viability. Cell viability, which was quantified by an MTT assay, decreased as a result of NP exposure in two experimental replicates, but these results were not reproducible. I found that NPs did not have consistent effects on the morphology or viability of NES fibroblasts, regardless of their size or concentration. Lastly, I examined the effects of plastic additives on the physiology of marine mammal blubber tissue, the primary energy depot and reservoir of lipophilic pollutants. Precision-cut NES blubber slices were exposed to BPA and BPS, alone and in combination with the lipolytic hormone epinephrine, and I assessed their effects on the blubber transcriptome. I found that while BPA and BPS treatments alone did not have a pronounced effect on gene expression, they altered the expression of several genes associated with lipid homeostasis and adipogenesis. These data suggest that NES likely ingest MPs and maybe physiologically affected by exposure to plastic particles and their associated contaminants.

No description available.

Les océans sont remplis de sons naturels et sont aujourd’hui de plus en plus envahis par des bruits d'origine humaine (bruits anthropiques). Ce mémoire étaye l’état actuel des connaissances sur les différentes sources de bruits sous-marins et leurs effets négatifs pour les espèces marines, les écosytèmes et les populations côtieres. Bien que le bruit soit un facteur de stress environnemental similaire à d'autres formes de pollution, la gestion du bruit anthropique a été négligée par les États et par le droit international. Cette étude met en lumière les difficultés pour le droit international et les États d’adopter des instruments spécialisés pour contrer le bruit anthropique alors que planent plusieurs incertitudes scientifiques. Le mémoire identifie et analyse les instruments contraignants et de soft law actuellement en vigueur, à l’international et au Canada, pour découvrir s’ils peuvent être mobilisés dans la lutte contre la pollution sonore dans les eaux arctiques canadiennes. L’adoption d’instruments juridiques ciblant spécifiquement les bruits anthropiques sous-marins est prônée mais avec la mise en garde que ce processus nécessitera une coopération inter et intra sectorielle concertée aux niveaux national, régional et international entre les milieux législatifs, scientifiques et décisionnels. / The world oceans are filled with natural sounds, which are being increasingly encroached upon by human sourced noises (anthropogenic noise). This thesis provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on the different sources of underwater noise and their negative effects on marine species, ecosystems and coastal populations. While anthropogenic noise is an environmental stressor similar to other forms of pollution, the management of anthropogenic noise has been neglected by States and by international law. This study highlights how scientific uncertainties and gaps complicate the process of crafting specialized international and domestic instruments to mitigate the impacts of underwater anthropogenic noise. The thesis identifies and analyzes binding and soft law instruments currently in force, internationally and in Canada, to discover whether they can be used to reduce noise pollution in Canadian Arctic waters. The adoption of legal instruments specifically applicable to anthropogenic underwater noise is advocated but with the caveat that it will require concerted inter and intra sectoral cooperation at the national, regional and international levels between legislative, scientific and decision-making circles.

The permitting process is an integral part of the successful expansion of offshore wind and renewable energy in the European Union. Many permit process studies, to date, have focused on limited methods and criteria and have been a comparison of two countries. This thesis was written in collaboration with a steering group’s work on an updated marine synthesis report in the Swedish Energy Agency and Swedish Environmental Protection Agency’s joint research programme, Vindval. It compares the permitting process and its effectiveness in 4 EU countries (Germany, Denmark, Scotland, and Sweden) with special emphasis on the acoustic impacts of wind turbine construction. 6 Key criteria that determine the outcome of a successful permit application were analysed: a) permit process maps b) quantity of actors c) consultation times d) ecological and environmental impact e) “planning vs permitting” and e) handling of acoustic impacts on marine mammals. Sweden’s process was found to be the most cumbersome and ineffective among the 4 countries. Germany, Denmark, and Scotland have streamline processes, in part due to the successful employment of a ‘one-stop-shop’ mechanism. It is recommended that Sweden create a similar, singular, and centralized ‘one-stop-shop’ authority that has the power to dictate permitting processes. If the country is to meet its goal of 100% renewable energy by 2040, permitting policy should include: flexible permitting for rapidly changing technology, endorsement of continuous dialog between authorities, a limit on consultation time, the removal or amendment of municipal vetoes, and have clear demarcation of worthwhile explorable zones reserved for offshore wind.

Onze espèces de mammifères marins vivent toute l’année en Arctique et dépendent de ce milieu marin si particulier. Ces espèces endémiques et uniques au monde se déplacent à grande échelle en traversant plusieurs zones maritimes des huit États côtiers et la haute mer. Toutefois, leurs conditions de vie sont menacées par les effets des changements climatiques et l’accroissement des activités humaines dans la région. Bien qu’il existe des règles juridiques de protection au niveau national, le phénomène de « déplacement » affaiblit leur efficacité. En effet, les mammifères marins ne connaissent pas les délimitations maritimes et sont donc assujettis à des protections variables et potentiellement incohérentes. Il est ainsi nécessaire de trouver une stratégie pour harmoniser les règles nationales et développer de nouvelles normes pour leur protection. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de découvrir si le droit international assure une protection adéquate aux mammifères marins qui se déplacent en Arctique. Cette étude identifie et analyse les forces et les faiblesses de plusieurs instruments juridiquement contraignants et de soft law au contenu général et spécifique. Bien qu’il n’existe aucun texte qui traite des mammifères marins en Arctique purement et simplement, ces instruments juridiques protègent certaines espèces de mammifères marins et certaines parties de la région Arctique. Pourtant, les onze mammifères marins connaissent les mêmes enjeux et forment un tout interdépendant. Les conclusions indiquent d’adopter une approche intégrée et d’opter pour une meilleure collaboration entre les États côtiers qui sont les mieux placés pour protéger ces espèces qui se déplacent en Arctique. / Eleven species of marine mammals live year-around in the Arctic and are dependent on its distinctive marine environment. These unique endemic species, which travel long distances, traverse the different maritime zones of the eight coastal States and cross into the high seas. However, their living conditions and habitats are under threat because of climate change and the expansion of human activity in the region. Although the coastal States have all adopted national legislation and regulations for the protection of marine mammals, the fact of their large scale “movement” weakens the efficacy of those laws. Indeed, marine mammals are the subject of various and potentially inconsistent domestic protections. For this reason, it is necessary to develop strategies to harmonise national measures and to devise new norms of protection. The objective of this thesis is to discover whether international law offers adequate protection to marine mammals that roam across the Arctic region. This study identifies and analyses the strengths and the weaknesses of a number of legally binding and soft law instruments of both a general and specialised nature. Many of the legal instruments target specific Arctic marine mammals or distinct areas of the Arctic region for protection. Yet, the eleven species at the heart of this enquiry are all experiencing the same difficulties and constitute an interconnected whole. The findings herein indicate the need for an integrative approach and for increased cooperation among the Arctic coastal States who are in a unique position to protect these species that roam throughout the Arctic.