In today's digital world, information and communication technology accounts for 3% and 2% of the global power consumption and CO2 emissions respectively. This alarming figure is on an upward trend, as future telecommunications systems and handsets will become even more power hungry since new services with higher bandwidth requirements emerge as part of the so called 'future internet' paradigm. In addition, the mobile handset industry is tightly coupled to the consumer need for more sophisticated handsets with greater battery lifetime. If we cannot make any significant step to reducing the energy gap between the power hungry requirements of future handsets, and what battery technology can deliver, then market penetration for 4G handsets can be at risk. Therefore, energy conservation must be a design objective at the forefront of any system design from the network layer, to the physical and the microelectronic counterparts. In fact, the energy distribution of a handset device is dominated by the energy consumption of the RF hardware, and in particular the power amplifier design. Power amplifier design is a traditional topic that addresses the design challenge of how to obtain a trade-off between linearity and efficiency in order to avoid the introduction of signal distortion, whilst making best use of the available power resources for amplification. However, the present work goes beyond this by investigating a new line of amplifiers that address the green initiatives, namely green power amplifiers. This research work explores how to use the Doherty technique to promote efficiency enhancement and thus energy saving. Five different topologies of RF power amplifiers have been designed with custom-made signal splitters. The design core of the Doherty technique is based on the combination of a class B, class AB and a class C power amplifier working in synergy; which includes 90-degree 2-way power splitter at the input, quarter wavelength transformer at the output, and a new output power combiner. The frequency range for the amplifiers was designed to operate in the 3.4 - 3.6 GHz frequency band of Europe mobile WiMAX. The experimental results show that 30dBm output power can be achieved with 67% power added efficiency (PAE) for the user terminal, and 45dBm with 66% power added efficiency (PAE) for base stations which marks a 14% and 11% respective improvement over current stateof- the-art, while meeting the power output requirements for mobile WiMAX applications.

Espectrometria de emissão óptica, utilizando plasmas acoplados indutivamente, torna-se uma ferramenta indispensável para análises de elementos químicos. Neste trabalho é descrita a construção detalhada de um oscilador de rádio frequência para obtenção de uma tocha de plasma indutivo. O projeto é estruturado a partir da elaboração da fonte retificadora, da malha de acoplamento, até a construção da tocha, além de análises com amostras líquidas e sólidas. Pelo fato de a tocha de plasma indutivo ser mais estável do que outros métodos de atomização, como laser ou chama, a torna uma escolha atraente para métodos analíticos, em vasta gama de aplicações. Os resultados do desempenho elétrico do oscilador de rádio frequência foram alcançados, embora as perdas sejam eminentes, foi obtida uma tensão na malha de acoplamento de 620 volts, potência na tocha de 1400 watts, e frequência do oscilador, com valor estável de 13,56 mega-hertz. Os resultados das análises também foi outro ponto de destaque, uma vez que, foi possível detectar através de um espectrômetro óptico, todos os elementos contidos numa solução de aço inox, tais como: silício, fósforo, manganês, molibdênio, cromo, níquel e cobre, embora os resultados quantitativos ainda necessitem de alguns ajustes. Com relação à análise de amostras sólidas, onde foram utilizados eletrodos consumíveis de alumínio e cobre, o resultado foi muito promissor, graças ao projeto da tocha que permite modificações em sua estrutura; os eletrodos consumíveis também foram analisados com as técnicas de difração de raio-X e microanálise por feixe de elétrons para confirmação dos resultados. / Optical emission spectrometry using inductively coupled plasma becomes an indispensable tool for analysis of chemical elements. This work describes the detailed construction of a radio frequency oscillator for obtaining an inductive plasma torch. The project is structured from the elaboration of the source rectifier, matching network, until the construction of the torch, and analyzes with liquid and solid samples. Because the inductive plasma torch to be more stable than other atomization methods such as laser or flame, becomes an attractive choice for analytical methods in wide range of applications. The results of the electrical performance of the radio frequency oscillator been achieved, although losses are distinguished was obtained at a voltage matching network 620 volts, the torch power of 1400 watts, and oscillator frequency, with a steady value of 13.56 mega-hertz. The results of analyzes was also another important point, since it was possible to detect through an optical spectrometer, all elements contained in a solution of stainless steel, such as silicon, phosphorus, manganese, molybdenum, chromium, nickel and copper, although the quantitative results still need some tweaking. Regarding the analysis of solid samples, which were consumable electrodes of aluminum and copper, the result was very promising, due to the torch project that allows modifications in its structure; consumable electrodes were also analyzed through the techniques x-ray diffraction and microanalysis by electron beam, to confirm the results.

<p>The overall goal of this diploma work is to produce a design of a 5 GHz radio frontend using Agilent Advanced Design System (ADS) and then build a working prototype. Using this prototype to determine if RF circuits at 5 GHz can be successfully produced using distributed components on a laminate substrate. </p><p>The design process for the radio front-end consists of two stages. In the first stage the distributed components are designed and simulated, and in the second stage all components are merged into a PCB. This PCB is then manufactured and assembled. All measurements on the radio front-end and the test components are made using a network analyser, in order to measure the S-parameters. </p><p>This diploma work has resulted in a functional design and prototype, which has proved that designing systems for 5 GHz on a laminate substrate is possible but by no means trivial.</p>

The overall goal of this diploma work is to produce a design of a 5 GHz radio frontend using Agilent Advanced Design System (ADS) and then build a working prototype. Using this prototype to determine if RF circuits at 5 GHz can be successfully produced using distributed components on a laminate substrate. The design process for the radio front-end consists of two stages. In the first stage the distributed components are designed and simulated, and in the second stage all components are merged into a PCB. This PCB is then manufactured and assembled. All measurements on the radio front-end and the test components are made using a network analyser, in order to measure the S-parameters. This diploma work has resulted in a functional design and prototype, which has proved that designing systems for 5 GHz on a laminate substrate is possible but by no means trivial.

In recent years, tremendous growth of the wireless market can be defined through the following words: smartphone and high-data rate wireless communication. This situation gives new challenges to RF power amplifier design, which includes high-efficiency, multi-band operation, and robustness to antenna mismatch conditions. In addition to these issues, the industry and consumers demand a low-cost small-sized wireless device. A fully integrated single-chip CMOS transceiver is the best solution in terms of cost and level of integration with other functional blocks. Therefore, the effective approaches in a CMOS process for the abovementioned hurdles are highly desirable. In this dissertation, the new challenges are overcome by introducing adaptability to a CMOS power amplifier. Meaningful achievements are summarized as follows. First, a new CMOS switched capacitor structure for high power applications is proposed. Second, a dual-mode CMOS PA with an integrated tunable matching network is proposed to extend battery lifetime. Third, a switchless dual-band matching structure is proposed, and the effectiveness of dual-band matching is demonstrated with a fully-integrated CMOS PA. Lastly, a reconfigurable CMOS PA with an automatic antenna mismatch recovery system is presented, which can maintain its original designed performance even under various antenna mismatch conditions. Conclusively, the research in this dissertation provides various solutions for new challenges of advanced mobile terminals.

Dans le contexte des applications mobiles, les contraintes de conception des chaînes d'émission toujours plus performantes et de taille réduite demandent de compenser la forte sensibilité des caractéristiques des antennes à leur environnement. En particulier, il est nécessaire de maîtriser l'impédance de l'antenne pour optimiser l'efficacité énergétique de la chaîne de transmission. Or, les solutions actuelles se montrent encombrantes. Dans cette thèse, plusieurs pistes basées sur l'implémentation de condensateurs variables ont été étudiées et ont conduit à la réalisation et la caractérisation de nouveaux dispositifs RF intégrés à même de participer à cet effort. Après une présentation du contexte et de l'état de l'art, nous proposons une étude de condensateurs variables basés sur la technique des capacités commutées. L'étude a permis la réalisation de deux condensateurs variables en technologie CMOS SOI 130 nm pour des applications d'adaptation d'impédance et d'antenne agile en fréquence. Un premier démonstrateur d'antenne fente agile en fréquence visant les bandes LTE situées entre 500 MHz et 1 GHz et utilisant ce type de condensateur a ensuite été réalisé puis validé. Un système d'accord permettant de corriger les désadaptations d'antenne a ensuite été étudié et a donné lieu à la réalisation de deux circuits intégrés en technologie CMOS SOI 130 nm. Le premier circuit est un détecteur d'impédance capable de fonctionner sur une gamme de puissance étendue de 0-40 dBm pour une plage de fréquences de 600 MHz-2,4 GHz. Le deuxième circuit intègre une version améliorée du détecteur avec un circuit d'adaptation variable autorisant la réalisation d'un système d'accord d'antenne autonome et compact représentant une avancée importante par rapport à l'état de l'art. / In the context of mobile applications, design constraints on always more performant and size-constrained emitting front-ends ask to compensate for strong sensitiveness of antennas characteristics to their environment. In particular, it is necessary to control the antenna impedance in order to optimize the energy efficiency of the transmitting front-end. Yet, current solutions are bulky. I this thesis, several ways based on the implementation of variable capacitors have been studied and have led to the design and characterization of new integrated RF devices that can participate to this effort. After a presentation of the context and the state-of-the-art, we propose a study of switched-capacitor-based variable capacitors. This study allowed the design of two variable capacitors in 130 nm CMOS SOI technology for impedance matching and frequency-agile antenna applications. Then, a first demonstrator module of a frequency-agile antenna aiming for 500 MHz-1 GHz LTE bands and using this type of capacitor has been designed and validated. A tunable system allowing the correction of antenna mismatch has then been studied and has led to the design of two 130 nm CMOS SOI integrated circuits. The first circuit is an impedance detector that is able to work on a 0-40 dBm power range and a 600 MHz-2.5 GHz frequency range. The second integrated circuit includes an improved version of the detector with a tunable matching network which both allow the fabrication of an autonomous, compact antenna tunable system showing significant progress relative to the state-of-the-art.

L’objectif de ce travail est d’aborder la conception de réseaux d’adaptation d’impédance accordable (RAA) dans deux contextes bien distincts en radiofréquences : le RAA en faible signal et le RAA en fort signal.Concernant les aspects faible signal, des critères de performance de RAA ont été établis et étudiés. Une nouvelle expression générale de l’efficacité d’un RAA a été développée. Elle permet de prédire le rendement d’un RAA à partir des facteurs de qualité des composants dont on dispose dans une technologie donnée et du rapport de transformation à réaliser. Des abaques de couverture d’impédances en fonction des pertes d’insertion ont été calculés. Ils mettent en évidence les régions de couverture où le RAA apporte une amélioration à la performance du système, pour diverses topologies de RAA.Un démonstrateur sur PCB a été réalisé. Il est constitué de deux RAA, qui assurent l’adaptation simultanée d’un amplificateur de puissance sur une large plage d’impédances, comprises dans un cercle de l’abaque de Smith d’équation VSWR < 5 :1. La zone de couverture a été mesurée et présentée en fonction des pertes d’insertion, qui mettent en évidence les régions où les RAA contribuent à l’amélioration de la performance de l’amplificateur et celles où les pertes d’insertion du RAA n’arrivent pas à compenser le gain du à la réduction des coefficients de réflexion.Dans une seconde partie, la conception de RAA en fort signal a été traitée. L’objectif a été de présenter à la sortie d’un amplificateur de puissance les impédances qui optimisent son efficacité pour chaque puissance de travail. Un démonstrateur en technologie CMOS SOI 130 nm a été conçu et simulé. Il consiste en un amplificateur de puissance pour le standard WCDMA, fonctionnant à 900 MHz, et un RA accordable par des varactors MOS, capable de générer les impédances optimales correspondant à des puissances de sortie comprises entre 20 et 30 dBm. Les résultats ont mis en évidence le bénéfice apporté par l’insertion d’un RA accordable par rapport à un RA fixe. / The aim of this research was the design of tunable matching networks, in two different contexts: the TMN at low and high signals.Performance criteria of TMN were studied. A general expression has been developed that estimates the TMN efficiency in function of the quality factor of the components used. The impedance coverage of different RAA topologies was plotted in function of the insertion losses.For the small signal, we designed a prototype in PCB, composed by two TMN, which ensure the simultaneous matching of a power amplifier in a wide range of impedances, included in a circle of the Smith chart VSWR < 5: 1. The coverage area was measured and presented in function of the insertion losses, emphasizing the areas where the TMN contribute to improve the amplifier performance and those where insertion losses of the TMN are not able to compensate gain with the reduction of the reflection coefficients.Subsequently, we discussed the design of TMN for the large signal. The objective is to present at the output of a power amplifier, the impedances that optimize efficiency for each power of operation. A 130 nm SOI prototype was designed and simulated, consisting of a power amplifier for WCDMA standard, 900 MHz, and a MN tunable by MOS varactors able to produce the optimal impedances corresponding to an output power between 20 and 30 dBm. The results showed the benefit provided by inserting a tunable MN compared to a fixed one.

Espectrometria de emissão óptica, utilizando plasmas acoplados indutivamente, torna-se uma ferramenta indispensável para análises de elementos químicos. Neste trabalho é descrita a construção detalhada de um oscilador de rádio frequência para obtenção de uma tocha de plasma indutivo. O projeto é estruturado a partir da elaboração da fonte retificadora, da malha de acoplamento, até a construção da tocha, além de análises com amostras líquidas e sólidas. Pelo fato de a tocha de plasma indutivo ser mais estável do que outros métodos de atomização, como laser ou chama, a torna uma escolha atraente para métodos analíticos, em vasta gama de aplicações. Os resultados do desempenho elétrico do oscilador de rádio frequência foram alcançados, embora as perdas sejam eminentes, foi obtida uma tensão na malha de acoplamento de 620 volts, potência na tocha de 1400 watts, e frequência do oscilador, com valor estável de 13,56 mega-hertz. Os resultados das análises também foi outro ponto de destaque, uma vez que, foi possível detectar através de um espectrômetro óptico, todos os elementos contidos numa solução de aço inox, tais como: silício, fósforo, manganês, molibdênio, cromo, níquel e cobre, embora os resultados quantitativos ainda necessitem de alguns ajustes. Com relação à análise de amostras sólidas, onde foram utilizados eletrodos consumíveis de alumínio e cobre, o resultado foi muito promissor, graças ao projeto da tocha que permite modificações em sua estrutura; os eletrodos consumíveis também foram analisados com as técnicas de difração de raio-X e microanálise por feixe de elétrons para confirmação dos resultados. / Optical emission spectrometry using inductively coupled plasma becomes an indispensable tool for analysis of chemical elements. This work describes the detailed construction of a radio frequency oscillator for obtaining an inductive plasma torch. The project is structured from the elaboration of the source rectifier, matching network, until the construction of the torch, and analyzes with liquid and solid samples. Because the inductive plasma torch to be more stable than other atomization methods such as laser or flame, becomes an attractive choice for analytical methods in wide range of applications. The results of the electrical performance of the radio frequency oscillator been achieved, although losses are distinguished was obtained at a voltage matching network 620 volts, the torch power of 1400 watts, and oscillator frequency, with a steady value of 13.56 mega-hertz. The results of analyzes was also another important point, since it was possible to detect through an optical spectrometer, all elements contained in a solution of stainless steel, such as silicon, phosphorus, manganese, molybdenum, chromium, nickel and copper, although the quantitative results still need some tweaking. Regarding the analysis of solid samples, which were consumable electrodes of aluminum and copper, the result was very promising, due to the torch project that allows modifications in its structure; consumable electrodes were also analyzed through the techniques x-ray diffraction and microanalysis by electron beam, to confirm the results.

L'impédance d'entrée d'une antenne miniature est fortement affectée par des facteurs environnementaux à l'origine de pertes de puissance réduisant l'efficacité énergétique des têtes radiofréquences dans les applications RF, en particulier dans la télémétrie des implants cardiaques. Le but de mes études est de développer une unité de calibration d'impédance d'antenne très faible consommation capable d'adapter toute variation de l'impédance d'entrée de l'antenne à l'impédance de la source radiofréquence. La première partie de mon étude est axée sur la conception au niveau système d'une approche nouvelle de calibration automatique du système. Un réseau d'adaptation automatique d'impédance sans coupleur et fonctionnant de façon directe est étudié et permet d'optimiser la taille du dispositif, la vitesse de l'adaptation, la consommation d'énergie et les performances globales. Deuxièmement, une nouvelle méthode de synthèse du réseau d'adaptation variable est proposée pour réduire fortement la complexité globale de l'algorithme d'adaptation. La troisième partie de mon étude est axée sur la fabrication d'un démonstrateur hybride fonctionnant dans la bande médicale MICS afin de valider le concept auto adaptatif d'impédance. Un banc expérimental qui comprend une antenne immergée dans son milieu connectée au démonstrateur piloté par un microcontrôleur a été mis en place et a permis d'atteindre un coefficient de réflexion jusqu'à -30dB avec un temps de calibration inférieur à 1ms. La dernière partie de mon travail consiste à concevoir le circuit d'adaptation automatique d'impédance d'antenne très faible consommation fonctionnant dans la bande ISM 2.4GHz en utilisant la technologie CMOS 0.13um. Antenna input impedance is highly affected by environmental factors increasing the losses or reducing the power efficiency of the radiofrequency transceiver in many RF applications such as in implantable pacemaker device telemetry. The purpose of my study is to develop a low power fully integrated antenna-impedance tuning unit to match any variation of the antenna impedance to the source. The first part of my study is focused on the system-level design of a new approach to automatically match the system. A couplerless single step automatic matching network is investigated to optimize the die size, the speed, the power consumption and the overall performance. Second, a new method for synthesizing an automatic matching network is developed reducing strongly the overall complexity of the matching algorithm. The third part of my study is focused on the fabrication of a hybrid demonstrator operating at the Medical Implantable Communication Service (MICS) frequency band to validate the concept. An experimental set-up including the antenna tuning unit, a microcontroller and a pacemaker antenna connected to the demonstrator was done achieving a reflection coefficient up to -30dB, an overall tuning time less than 1ms. The last part of my work is to design the entire automatic matching network circuit in 0.13um CMOS technology including a front-end transceiver designed under ultra low power constraints and operating at 2.4GHz ISM frequency band. The additional items overall power consumption is less than 1.5mW under 1.2V supply voltage.

L'impédance d'entrée d'une antenne miniature est fortement affectée par des facteurs environnementaux à l'origine de pertes de puissance réduisant l'efficacité énergétique des têtes radiofréquences dans les applications RF, en particulier dans la télémétrie des implants cardiaques. Le but de mes études est de développer une unité de calibration d'impédance d'antenne très faible consommation capable d'adapter toute variation de l'impédance d'entrée de l'antenne à l'impédance de la source radiofréquence. La première partie de mon étude est axée sur la conception au niveau système d'une approche nouvelle de calibration automatique du système. Un réseau d'adaptation automatique d'impédance sans coupleur et fonctionnant de façon directe est étudié et permet d'optimiser la taille du dispositif, la vitesse de l'adaptation, la consommation d'énergie et les performances globales. Deuxièmement, une nouvelle méthode de synthèse du réseau d'adaptation variable est proposée pour réduire fortement la complexité globale de l'algorithme d'adaptation. La troisième partie de mon étude est axée sur la fabrication d'un démonstrateur hybride fonctionnant dans la bande médicale MICS afin de valider le concept auto adaptatif d'impédance. Un banc expérimental qui comprend une antenne immergée dans son milieu connectée au démonstrateur piloté par un microcontrôleur a été mis en place et a permis d'atteindre un coefficient de réflexion jusqu'à -30dB avec un temps de calibration inférieur à 1ms. La dernière partie de mon travail consiste à concevoir le circuit d'adaptation automatique d'impédance d'antenne très faible consommation fonctionnant dans la bande ISM 2.4GHz en utilisant la technologie CMOS 0.13um. / Antenna input impedance is highly affected by environmental factors increasing the losses or reducing the power efficiency of the radiofrequency transceiver in many RF applications such as in implantable pacemaker device telemetry. The purpose of my study is to develop a low power fully integrated antenna-impedance tuning unit to match any variation of the antenna impedance to the source. The first part of my study is focused on the system-level design of a new approach to automatically match the system. A couplerless single step automatic matching network is investigated to optimize the die size, the speed, the power consumption and the overall performance. Second, a new method for synthesizing an automatic matching network is developed reducing strongly the overall complexity of the matching algorithm. The third part of my study is focused on the fabrication of a hybrid demonstrator operating at the Medical Implantable Communication Service (MICS) frequency band to validate the concept. An experimental set-up including the antenna tuning unit, a microcontroller and a pacemaker antenna connected to the demonstrator was done achieving a reflection coefficient up to -30dB, an overall tuning time less than 1ms. The last part of my work is to design the entire automatic matching network circuit in 0.13um CMOS technology including a front-end transceiver designed under ultra low power constraints and operating at 2.4GHz ISM frequency band. The additional items overall power consumption is less than 1.5mW under 1.2V supply voltage.