L’anxiété est un symptôme prédominant au cours des périodes initiales de sevrage à la cocaïne et est considérécomme un facteur important de rechute. Le but de cette étude était de caractériser les dysfonctionnementscérébraux qui pourraient contribuer à l’expression de cet état pathologique chez le rat.Les rats sont traités avec de la cocaïne en chronique et le comportement anxieux est évalué au cours du sevragedans différents paradigmes expérimentaux (tests du labyrinthe en croix surélevé, du confinement dans un brasouvert surélevé et de l’enfouissement défensif). Nos résultats ont montré que le sevrage à la cocaïne induit unétat anxieux élevé qui persiste pendant au moins 28 jours de sevrage. Nous avons ensuite utilisél’immunohistochimie de Fos pour comparer les patterns d’activation cérébrale chez les rats sevrés et témoinsaprès exposition au test de l’OA. Nos données ont montré que l’anxiété élevée des rats sevrés était accompagnéed’une altération de la réactivité des neurones glutamatergiques de la partie dorsale du cortex préfrontal médian(dCPFm) et de certaines régions sous-corticale (aires hypothalamiques latérale et antérieure et le noyauparaventriculaire du thalamus). Nous avons ensuite montré que l’inactivation pharmacologique du dCPFm avecdu muscimol atténuait les comportements anxieux des rats sevrés suggérant ainsi une hyperréactivité de cetterégion corticale durant le traitement des informations de type anxieux. Notre étude amène des données nouvellesquant aux substrats neuronaux sous-tendant l’anxiété pathologique observée au cours du sevrage à la cocaïne etsouligne l’importance du CPFm dans la régulation de cet état d’anxiété pathologique. / Anxiety is one of the prevailing symptoms observed during the initial period of abstinence in cocaine abusersand is considered as an important factor of relapse. The aim of this study was to provide further insight into thecerebral dysregulations that might contribute to this pathological state in rats.Rats were treated chronically with cocaine and anxiety-behaviors were assessed in different paradigms duringwithdrawal (elevated plus maze, open arm and shock probe burying tests). Our results demonstrated that cocainewithdrawal induced persistent heightened levels of anxiety that last for at least 28 days. We then used Fosimmunohistochemistry to map neuronal activation patterns in withdrawn rats confined to one open arm (OA) ofan elevated plus maze. Our data showed that the exacerbated anxiety observed in cocaine treated rats exposed toan OA was accompanied by an altered reactivity of the dorsal part of the medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC)glutamatergic neurons and some sub-cortical regions (anterior and lateral hypothalamic areas and theparaventricular nucleus of the thalamus). Finally, we showed that pharmacological inactivation of the dmPFCwith muscimol considerably attenuated anxiety-related behaviors in cocaine withdrawn rats suggesting anexaggerated response of this cortical area during the processing of anxiogenic stimuli. The present studyprovides new data on the neural substrate underlying pathological anxiety observed during cocaine withdrawaland highlights the importance of the dmPFC in the regulation of this pathological anxiety state.

Despite the lack of robust clinical response, treatment strategies for cancer-induced depression (CID) are currently limited to those developed for non-cancer-related depression. The work presented in this dissertation conceptualizes CID as a pathophysiologically distinct form of depression. To investigate CID at the most basic level, we first developed a preclinical model that was validated by comparison to an established model of stress-induced depressive-like behaviours. The positive control model was developed by chronically treating female BALB/c mice with oral corticosterone (CORT). The CID model was developed using subcutaneous inoculation with 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells. Anhedonia, behavioural despair, and dendritic atrophy in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were observed in both models. Similar to many human cancer cell lines, 4T1 cells were shown to secrete significant amounts of glutamate, which was markedly attenuated using the system xc- inhibitor sulfasalazine (SSZ). In CID mice, oral treatment with SSZ was at least as effective as fluoxetine, a popular clinical antidepressant, at preventing depressive-like behaviours. This effect was primarily attributable to intact SSZ, rather than its anti-inflammatory metabolite. RNA-sequencing was performed on hippocampal samples from CID and CORT animals. Analysis of differential expressed genes (DEGs) revealed significant overlap between the two models. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways and biological process gene ontologies (GO:BP) terms related to ion homeostasis and neuronal communication were enriched for both models. CID was associated with additional DEGs that were not identified in the CORT model. These DEGs were enriched in KEGG pathways and GO:BP terms related to neuronal development, intracellular signalling cascade, learning, and memory. These studies suggest that CID may involve a distinct aetiology, and that glutamate secretion by cancer cells presents a viable target for antidepressant treatment. The development of mechanism-based therapeutics for CID will dramatically improve the quality of life for cancer patients. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Cancer patients are at a high risk of developing depression. In addition to the psychological stress caused by a cancer diagnosis, there is evidence that cancer causes depression through biological pathways. To investigate these pathways, a mouse model of cancer-induced depression (CID) was developed. This model showed comparable behavioural and structural brain deficits to those observed in a stress model of depression. Cancer cells secrete elevated levels of glutamate, a signalling molecule that is involved in depression. In CID mice, inhibiting glutamate release had an antidepressant effect similar to that of fluoxetine, a standard clinical antidepressant. A genetic analysis on brain samples from the CID model revealed significant overlap with the stress model of depression. CID mice had additional changes relevant to learning, memory, and brain cell development that were not detected in the stress model. A better understanding of CID will lead to better treatment strategies developed specifically for cancer patients.

No description available.

Pour comprendre comment le cerveau inhibe l'appétit en dépit d'un besoin énergétique, nous avons étudié les mécanismes neuronaux qui sous-tendent l'effet hypophagique induit par la 3,4-N-méthylén édioxyméthamphétamine (MDMA : « ecstasie ») et le stress (immobilisation forcée) car ces facteurs réduisent la faim d'un animal, même s'il est affamé. Nous montrons que la stimulation intracérébrale des récepteurs 5-HT4 de la sérotonine (R5-HT4), ou leur plus forte expression (ectopique, physiologique) dans une aire de la récompense (noyau accumbens : NAc), réduit la faim en augmentant l'action anorexigène d'un peptide de l'addiction : CART. A l'encontre de l'équilibre énergétique, l'effet anorexigène induit par la stimulation des R5-HT4 dans le NAc s'accompagne d'une hyperactivité motrice, souvent décrite chez l'humain souffrant d'anorexie mentale. En supposant qu'un effet récompensant prévaut sur le danger d'un déséquilibre énergétique, nous montrons, qu'effectivement, l'injection d'un antagoniste des R5-HT4 dans le NAc réduit les effets anorexigène, hyperlocomoteur et récompensant de la MDMA. S'il est alors récompensant de se priver d'aliments, une souris surexprimant les R5-HT4 dans le NAc, devrait, après une faible et transitoire restriction alimentaire, continuer à s'auto-priver d'aliments même si l'aliment est fourni ensuite ad libitum. La réponse est positive. En revanche, les R5-HT4 du NAc ne contribuent pas, à priori, à l'hypophagie due au stress. Puisque le système de la récompense est inclut dans celui de la prise de décision contrôlée par le cortex préfrontal médian (CPFm), nous avons supposé que l'effet hypophagique provoqué par le stress utilise les R5-HT4 corticaux. L'injection de traitements nucléiques (siRNA, virus), dans le CPFm de souris sauvages et privées des R5-HT4, montre que seule l'activation des R5-HT4 du CPFm est à l'origine de l'effet hypophagique du stress. Nos résultats suggèrent que [1] le stress active les R5-HT4 du CPFm et réduit la densité du transporteur de capture de la 5-HT, favorisant [2] l'augmentation du taux de la 5-HT extracellulaire dans le noyau d u raphé dorsal d'où, [3] un contrôle inhibiteur de l'activité des neurones 5-HT par le R5-HT1A permettant d'éviter que l'hypophagie ne se prolonge en conduite anorexigène. L'ensemble de nos résultats étayent la possibilité que le réseau neuronal de l'addiction et de la prise de décision de manger après stress inclut celui de la conduite anorexigène, avec jusqu'alors, une contribution évidente des R5-HT4. / To understand how the brain inhibits appetite despite an energy demand, we study the neuronal mechanisms, which underlie the hypophagic effect induced by the 3,4-N-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA: « Ecstasy ») and stress (forced immobilization) because these factors reduce appetite in animals, even starved. We show that stimulating serotonin 4 receptors (5-HTR4), or their overexpression (ectopic, physiological) in a brain reward area (nucleus accumbens: NAc), reduced hunger in increasing the appetite-suppressant effect of an addiction peptide: CART. Against the energy balance, the appetite-suppressant effect induced by stimulating 5-HTR4 in the NAc comes along with hyperactivity, often described in human suffering from anorexia nervosa. Supposing that a rewarding effect prevails over the danger of an energy imbalance, we show indeed that injecting 5-HTR4 antagonist in the NAc reduced the appetite-suppressant effect, the hyperactivity and the rewarding effect provoked by MDMA. If food deprivation is rewarding, mouse overexpressing 5-HTR4 in the NAc, after a low and transient diet period, should continue to self-imposed food refusal even in the presence of food ad libitum. The answer is positive. In contrast, 5-HTR4 in the NAc does not contribute, à priori, to stress-induced hypophagia. Because the reward system is included in the neuronal network of the decision-making, mainly controlled by the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), we postulated that hypophagia following stress uses cortical 5-HTR4. Injecting nucleic treatments (siRNA, virus), in the mPFC of wild-type or 5-HTR4 null mice, shows that only the stimulation of 5-HTR4 in the mPFC sparks off the hypophagic effect of stress. Our results suggest that [1] stress activates 5-HTR4 in the mPFC and reduces density of the 5-HT transporter, promoting [2] increase of the extracellular 5-HT level in the dorsal raphe nucleus and thus [3] an inhibitory control of t he activity of 5-HT neurons by 5-HTR1A allowing to avoid that the period of food restriction persists (anorexia-like behavior). Colectively, our findings support the the neuronal network of addiction and decision-making to eat after stress include the neuronal pathway related to anorexia, with so far, a clear contribution of 5-HTR4.

Can the brain register the emotional valence of brief exposures of complex natural stimuli under conditions of forward and backward masking, and under conditions of attentional competition between foveal and peripheral stimuli? To address this question, three experiments were conducted. The first, a behavioural experiment, measured subjective valence of response (pleasant vs unpleasant) to test the perception of the valence of natural images in brief, masked exposures in a forward and backward masking paradigm. Images were chosen from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) series. After correction for response bias, responses to the majority of target stimuli were concordant with the IAPS ratings at better than chance, even when the presence of the target was undetected. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the effects of IAPS valence and stimulus category were objectively measured on nine regions of interest (ROIs) using the same strict temporal restrictions in a similar masking design. Evidence of affective processing close to or below conscious threshold was apparent in some of the ROIs. To further this line of enquiry, a second fMRI experiment mapping the same ROIs and using the same stimuli were presented in a foveal (‘attended’) peripheral (‘to-be-ignored’) paradigm (small image superimposed in the centre of a large image of the same category, but opposite valence) to investigate spatial parameters and limitations of attention. Results are interpreted as showing both valence and category specific effects of ‘to-be-ignored’ images in the periphery. These results are discussed in light of theories of the limitations of attentional capacity and the speed in which we process natural images, providing new evidence of the breadth of variety in the types of affective visual stimuli we are able to process close to the threshold of conscious perception.

Les processus d'apprentissage et de mémoire sont contrôlés par des circuits et éléments neuronaux spécifiques. De nombreuses études ont récemment mis en évidence que les circuits corticaux jouent un rôle important dans la régulation des comportements de peur, cependant, leurs caractéristiques anatomiques et fonctionnelles restent encore largement inconnues. Au cours de ma thèse, en utilisant des enregistrements unitaires et des approches optogénétiques chez la souris libre de se comporter, nous avons pu montrer que les interneurones inhibiteurs du cortex auditif et du cortex préfrontal médian forment un microcircuit désinhibiteur permettant respectivement l'acquisition et l'expression de la mémoire de peur conditionnée. Dans les deux cas, les interneurones parvalbuminergiques constituent l'élément central du circuit et sont inhibés de façon phasique. D’un point de vue fonctionnel, nous avons démontré que cette inhibition était associée à la désinhibition des neurones pyramidaux par un mécanisme de réduction de l'inhibition continue exercée par les interneurones parvalbuminergiques. Ainsi, les interneurones parvalbuminergiques peuvent contrôler temporellement l'excitabilité des neurones pyramidaux. En particulier, nous avons montré que l'acquisition de la mémoire de peur conditionnée dépend du recrutement d'un microcircuit désinhibiteur localisé dans le cortex auditif. En effet, au cours du conditionnement de peur, la présentation du choc électrique induit l'inhibition des interneurones parvalbuminergiques, ce qui a pour conséquence de désinhiber les neurones pyramidaux du cortex auditif et de permettre l’apprentissage du conditionnement de peur. Dans leur ensemble, ces données suggèrent que la désinhibition est un mécanisme important dans l'apprentissage et le traitement de l'information dans les circuits corticaux. Dans un second temps, nous avons montré que l'expression de la peur conditionnée requière l'inhibition phasique des interneurones parvalbuminergiques du cortex préfrontal médian. En effet, leur inhibition désinhibe les cellules pyramidales préfrontales et synchronise leur activité en réinitialisant les oscillations thêta locales. Ces résultats mettent en évidence deux mécanismes neuronaux complémentaires induits par les interneurones parvalbuminergiques qui coordonnent et organisent avec précision l’activité neuronale des neurones pyramidaux du cortex préfrontal pour contrôler l'expression de la peur conditionnée. Ensemble, nos données montrent que la désinhibition joue un rôle important dans les comportements de peur en permettant l’association entre des informations comportementalement pertinentes, en sélectionnant les éléments spécifiques du circuit et en orchestrant l'activité neuronale des cellules pyramidales. / Learning and memory processes are controlled by specific neuronal circuits and elements. Numerous recent reports highlighted the important role of cortical circuits in the regulation of fear behaviour, however, the anatomical and functional characteristics of their neuronal components remain largely unknown. During my thesis, we used single unit recordings and optogenetic manipulations of specific neuronal elements in behaving mice, to show that both the auditory cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex contain a disinhibitory microcircuit required respectively for the acquisition and the expression of conditioned fear memory. In both cases, parvalbumin-expressing interneurons constitute the central element of the circuit and are phasically inhibited during the presentation of the conditioned tone. From a functional point of view, we demonstrated that this inhibition induced the disinhibition of cortical pyramidal neurons by releasing the ongoing perisomatic inhibition mediated by parvalbumin-expressing interneurons onto pyramidal neurons. Thereby, this disinhibition allows the precise temporal regulation of pyramidal neurons excitability. In particular, we showed that the acquisition of associative fear memories depend on the recruitment of a disinhibitory microcircuit in the auditory cortex. Fear-conditioning-associated disinhibition in auditory cortex is driven by foot-shock-mediated inhibition of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons. Importantly, pharmacological or optogenetic blockade of pyramidal neuron disinhibition abolishes fear learning. Together, these data suggest that disinhibition is an important mechanism underlying learning and information processing in cortical circuits. Secondly, in the medial prefrontal cortex, we demonstrated that expression of fear behaviour is causally related to the phasic inhibition of prefrontal parvalbumin-expressing interneurons. Inhibition of parvalbumin-expressing interneuron activity disinhibits prefrontal pyramidal neurons and synchronizes their firing by resetting local theta oscillations, leading to fear expression. These results identify two complementary neuronal mechanisms both mediated by prefrontal parvalbumin-expressing interneurons that precisely coordinate and enhance the neuronal efficiency of prefrontal pyramidal neurons to drive fear expression. Together these data highlighted the important role played by neuronal disinhibition in fear behaviour by binding behavioural relevant information, selecting specific circuit elements and orchestrating pyramidal neurons activity.

A exposição prolongada a estressores socio-ambientais induz alterações duradouras nos níveis afetivo, cognitivo e fisiológico característicos de transtornos de ansiedade e depressão. No paradigma de estresse crônico variado (ECV) é possível modelar essas alterações com base na exposição aleatória, intermitente e incerta dos roedores a vários estressores. Porém, alguns indivíduos também demostram uma capacidade notável de adaptação ativa e persistem diante de eventos imprevisíveis e incontroláveis. Sabe-se também que o sistema neural histaminérgico (SNH) é um indicador sensível do estresse e regula as reações defensivas relacionadas. Contudo, pouco se sabe sobre o papel da histamina no modelo de ECV. Considerando ainda que o perfil comportamental dos camundongos estressados pelo ECV seja contraditório, o presente estudo investigou se (1) duas linhagens de camundongos seriam susceptíveis a respostas relacionadas ao estresse; (2) a neurotransmissão histaminérgica estaria envolvida na ansiedade induzida pelo estresse; (3) o tratamento crônico com L-histidina (LH) combinado ou não ao ECV modificaria a expressão de Fos em áreas cerebrais límbicas. Para testar o impacto do protocolo ECV sobre respostas do tipo depressivas, os comportamentos de camundongos Suíços não estressados (NST) e estressados (ST) foram analisados na tarefa de esquiva ativa de duas vias e no teste de suspensão da cauda. Não foi detectado aumento significativo da imobilidade passiva, mas o grupo ST apresentou hiperreatividade na tarefa de esquiva. Como etapa seguinte, os efeitos do ECV no comportamento ansioso dos animais NST e ST foi verificado no labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE). Notavelmente, camundongos C57Bl/6 estressados desenvolveram respostas ansiogênicas, enquanto a linhagem de Suíço exibiu um perfil comportamental heterogêneo no LCE. Estes resultados indicam que o regime de ECV induz um efeito ansiogênico de modo consistente em animais C57Bl/6 adultos, enquanto os camundongos Suíço são resilientes ao protocolo. Além disso, a ansiedade induzida pelo ECV não foi revertida ou potencializada pela administração crônica de LH, enquanto que a estimulação farmacológica prolongada do SNH poderia representar um potencial estresse isoladamente. Adicionalmente, uma hipo-ativação das áreas corticais pré-limbicas e infralímbicas foi relacionada à condição de estresse crônico, sem efeitos resultantes do tratamento farmacológico. A expressão de Fos+ induzida pela exposição ao LCE foi detectada nos subnúcleos lateral, basolateral e central, porém não houve ativação diferencial destes subnúcleos amígdaloides influenciados pelo ECV e/ou tratamento. Assim, os resultados apresentadas corroboram evidências de que respostas ao estresse são genética e experiência-dependentes, resultando em resiliência ou má adaptação de indivíduos e linhagens. Além disso, o ECV foi capaz de causar uma resposta ansiogênica acompanhada de hipo-ativação de subáreas específicas do córtex pré-frontal medial, região cerebral importante na regulação dos comportamentos defensivos e nas respostas psicofisiológicas do estresse. Finalmente, o tratamento crônico com LH não alterou os parâmetros comportamentais e neuroanatômico-funcionais influenciados pelo estresse. / Chronic exposure to socio-environmental stressors leads to a myriad of long-term alterations in affective, cognitive and physiological levels, which typifies prevalent neuropsychiatric disorders. Importantly, chronic variable stress (CVS) is an experimental model for anxiety- and depressive-like disorders based on the random, intermittent, and uncertain exposure to various stressors. Some individuals also show a remarkable ability to adapt and actively cope and persist in the face of such unpredictable and uncontrollable events. Histamine is a sensitive indicator of stressful experiences and modulates the activation of neuroendocrine stress response to influence defensive reactions. However, little is known about the role of histamine on CVS model. While the behavioral profile of CUS-stressed mice is also contradictory, we investigated whether (1) two widely used mouse strains were susceptible to stress-related responses; (2) histaminergic neurotransmission is involved on stress-induced anxiety; (3) L-histidine (LH) chronic treatment combined to CVS changes Fos expression in limbic areas. To test the impact of the CVS protocol on depressive-like responses, the performance of non-stressed (NST) and stressed (ST) Swiss animals was analyzed in the two-way avoidance task and in the tail suspension test. No increased passive immobility was detected, but the ST group did display hyperreactivity in the avoidance task. Next, the effects of CVS on anxiety were examined in the elevated plus maze (EPM). Remarkably, stressed C57Bl/6 developed anxiogenic responses, while Swiss mice displayed a heterogeneous behavioral profile in the EPM. These results indicate that 2-week-long CVS regimen consistently induces anxiogenic-like response in adult C57Bl/6 mice, while Swiss animals seem to be resilient. Additionally, CVS-induced anxiety is not reversed or potentialized by the chronic administration of LH, but the histamine precursor appears to be a potential stressor per se. Importantly, a hypoactivation of the prelimbic and infralimbic cortical areas was related to the chronic stress condition, with no main effects of the pharmacological treatment. EPM induced Fos+ expression was detected in the lateral, basolateral and central subnuclei, without differential activation of these amygdaloid subnuclei provoked by CVS and/or histaminergic stimulation. The present evidences corroborate the concept that stress responses can be genetic- and experience-dependent, resulting in resilience or maladaptation of a particular strain. Also, stress-induced anxiety could be related to a hypoactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex, important brain region in regulating the defensive behaviors and HPA stress response.

Alterações no sistema glutamatérgico e mudanças no funcionamento do córtex pré-frontal medial (CPFm) têm sido associadas a diversos distúrbios psiquiátricos, dentre os quais a ansiedade. Também é reconhecido que alterações nas concentrações circulantes de glicocorticóides podem induzir alterações nas sinapses e circuitos glutamatérgicos e, consequentemente, modificar a reatividade emocional dos animais. Embora se saiba que os glicocorticóides influenciam a liberação de glutamato no CPFm, a interação entre os efeitos mediados pelos receptores mineralocorticóides (MR) ou glicocorticóides (GR) e o sistema glutamatérgico, na expressão da resposta condicionada de medo, ainda não está elucidada. Nesse sentido, os objetivos do presente estudo foram investigar (i) a influência dos glicocorticóides na expressão do medo condicionado contextual e seus efeitos sobre a atividade do CPFm em ratos, (ii) o papel dos receptores MR e GR localizados no córtex prelímbico (PrL) na expressão da resposta condicionada de congelamento e (iii) a interação entre os mecanismos mediados pelos glicocorticoides e o sistema glutamatérgico, via receptores do tipo NMDA, na expressão dessa resposta. Ratos Wistar machos foram tratados com veículo ou metirapona, um bloqueador de síntese de corticosterona, e expostos a um contexto previamente pareado com choque nas patas. Foram avaliados o tempo de medo contextual (comportamento de congelamento) e a expressão de proteína Fos em diferentes regiões do CPFm. Os resultados mostraram que a exposição ao contexto aversivo levou a um aumento significativo da expressão de congelamento e de proteína Fos no PrL, nas áreas do córtex cingulado anterior 1 e 2 (Cg1 e Cg2), mas não no córtex infralímbico. A administração de metirapona levou a uma diminuição da expressão de congelamento e de proteína Fos no PrL, Cg1 e Cg2. A administração bilateral de espironolactona, um antagonista de receptores MR, no PrL antes do teste diminuiu as respostas de medo e o pré-tratamento com RU38486, um antagonista de receptores GR, aboliu este efeito. Os resultados também mostraram que a diminuição da resposta de congelamento induzida por injeções intra-PrL de corticosterona foi abolida pela administração prévia de RU38486, mas não por espironolactona, indicando que a corticosterona recruta preferencialmente os receptores GR para produzir esses efeitos. A administração prévia do antagonista de receptor NMDA também preveniu os efeitos induzidos pelo tratamento com corticosterona sugerindo que, no PrL, parte dos efeitos rápidos do glicocorticóides sobre a expressão do medo condicionado se dá por uma interação com o sistema glutamatérgico. A administração de NMDA no PrL, antes do teste, induziu efeitos similares ao tratamento com corticosterona nessa região. De modo geral, os resultados sugerem que a liberação de corticosterona durante a apresentação de um estímulo condicionado aversivo influencia a atividade do CPFm de maneira que, uma mudança no equilíbrio das atividades mediadas por MR e GR, por meio de um aumento da atividade de GR, interage com o sistema glutamatérgico via aumento da atividade dos receptores NMDA influenciando a expressão da resposta de medo condicionado contextual. Sugere-se que a redução na expressão do medo condicionado observada após a administração local de corticosterona no PrL também seja decorrente de mudanças no equilíbrio entre MR e GR em direção a um aumento de suas ações mediadas por GR, assim como um aumento na liberação de glutamato e maior atividade de receptores NMDA nessa região. / Changes in the glutamatergic system and in the functioning of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) have been associated with different psychiatric disorders, including anxiety. It is also recognized that changes in circulating levels of glucocorticoids can induce changes in glutamatergic synapses and circuits and therefore alter the emotional reactivity of animals. Although is known that glucocorticoids can influence the release of glutamate in the mPFC, the interaction between mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) and glucocorticoid receptors (GR) activation and the glutamatergic activity on the expression of conditioned fear response is not yet elucidated. The aims of the present study were to investigate (i) the influence of glucocorticoids on the expression of contextual conditioned fear and its effects in the activity of the mPFC in rats, (ii) the role of MR and GR in the prelimbic cortex (PrL) on expression of conditioned freezing response and (iii) a possible interaction between the effects mediated by the glucocorticoids and the glutamatergic system, via NMDA receptors on the expression of this response. Male Wistar rats were treated with vehicle or metyrapone, a corticosterone synthesis blocker, and exposed to a context previously paired with footshock. The time of contextual fear (freezing behavior) and Fos protein expression in different regions of mPFC were evaluated. The results showed that exposure to the aversive context induced a significant increase in freezing and Fos protein expression in the PrL, in the anterior cingulate cortex, areas 1 and 2 (Cg1 and Cg2), but not in the infralimbic cortex. The administration of metyrapone induced a decrease on the expression of freezing and Fos in PrL, Cg1 and Cg2. Bilateral administration of spironolactone (a MR antagonist) in PrL before the test, decreased conditioned fear response and the pretreatment with RU38486 (a GR antagonist) abolished this effect. The results also showed that the decrease of freezing response induced by intra-PrL corticosterone injections was abolished by prior administration of RU38486, but not by spironolactone, indicating that corticosterone recruits preferentially GR to produce the observed effects. Prior administration of the NMDA receptor antagonist also prevented the effects induced by corticosterone treatment in the PrL, suggesting that part of rapid effects of glucocorticoids on the expression of conditioned fear occurs by an interaction with the glutamatergic system. Additionally, NMDA administration in the PrL prior to the test induced similar effects to corticosterone treatment in this region. Overall, the results suggest that the release of corticosterone during the presentation of a conditioned aversive stimulus influences the mPFC activity so that a change in the balance of the activities mediated by MR and GR through an increase in GR activity interacts with the glutamatergic system by increasing the activity of NMDA receptors influencing the expression of contextual fear conditioning response. It is suggested that the reduction in the expression of conditioned fear observed after local administration of corticosterone in the PrL is also due to changes in the balance between MR and GR towards an increase in the actions mediated by GR, as well as an increase in the release of glutamate and a greater NMDA receptor activity in this region.

Submitted by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T19:35:48Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSC.pdf: 1757369 bytes, checksum: 8c5c3122b8536a2aa61fd673039785e3 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T19:35:55Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSC.pdf: 1757369 bytes, checksum: 8c5c3122b8536a2aa61fd673039785e3 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T19:36:03Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSC.pdf: 1757369 bytes, checksum: 8c5c3122b8536a2aa61fd673039785e3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-23T19:36:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSC.pdf: 1757369 bytes, checksum: 8c5c3122b8536a2aa61fd673039785e3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-13 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Stressful situations are risk factors to the development of neuropsychiatric diseases, as anxiety disorders. However, not everyone who experiences stressful events develops stress-related illness. That is due to the existence of differences in the ability to adapt to stress, that is, the manifestation of susceptibility or resilience phenotypes. The search for understanding neural systems involved to these differences has evidenced an important role of the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC), and, recently, its functional lateralization has been highlighted. In this sense, the right mPFC (RmPFC) seems to modulate anxiogenic-like responses, while the left mPFC (LmPFC) would attenuate such responses, thereby facilitating animals to cope with threatening situations. If so, LmPFC inhibition would intensify ansiogenic-like behavior front to aversive stimuli. Under this hypothesis, one of the goals of the present study was to investigate whether the inhibition of the LmPFC could modulate the effect of two types of stress (the restraint and the social defeat) on anxiety. Yet, we also aimed to investigate whether NMDA-glutamate receptor would be involved to the anxiogenic-like effect induced by nitrergic activation of the RmPFC, given the anxiogenic potential of glutamate and the interaction already known between these neurotransmissions. To reach that, experiments were carried out (1) to characterize the effects of social defeat and restraint stress on animals exposed to elevated plus maze (EPM) 5 minutes or 24 hours later; (2) to evaluate the effects of restraint or social defeat combined to the synaptic inactivation (through nonspecific inhibitor, CoCl2) of the LmPFC on the defensive behavior of mice exposed to EPM 24 h after stress; (3) to investigate the effects of NMDA receptor antagonism and (4) the effect of that antagonism on anxiogenic-like effects induced by NO donor. The results showed that both restraint and defeat stress are anxiogenic at 5 minutes, but defeated mice do not display anxiety 24 h after stress. Furthermore, the synaptic inhibition produced a clear anxiogenic-like effect in defeated (but not restrained) mice. In addition, the blockade of NMDA receptors produced anxiolytic-like effects and reversed the anxiogenic effect induced by NO injection into the RmPFC. Taken together, these results corroborate previous studies demonstrating the functional lateralization of the mPFC, in which the right and left hemispheres seem to have distinct roles in the modulation of aversive events. / O estresse, que pode ser definido como uma condição que perturba o equilíbrio fisiológico e psicológico de um indivíduo, é fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doenças neuropsiquiáticas, como transtornos de ansiedade. No entanto, nem todos os indivíduos que vivenciam um evento estressor desenvolvem doenças relacionadas a ele. Isto se deve à existência de diferenças na habilidade de se adaptar ao estresse, ou seja, a manifestação dos fenótipos de susceptibilidade ou resiliência. A busca pelo entendimento dos sistemas neurais envolvidos nessas diferenças tem evidenciado um papel importante do Córtex Pré-Frontal medial (CPFm) e, mais recentemente, a sua lateralização funcional vem ganhando especial destaque. Neste sentido, o CPFm Direito (D) parece modular respostas ansiogênicas, enquanto o CPFm Esquerdo (E) atenuaria essas respostas, ajudando o animal a lidar com eventos aversivos. Neste caso, a inibição do CPFmE intensificaria as respostas geradas por situações ameaçadoras. Sob essa hipótese, um dos objetivos do presente trabalho foi investigar se a inibição do CPFmE poderia modular o efeito de dois tipos de estresse (a contenção e a derrota social) sobre a ansiedade. Ainda, esse estudo também investigou se os receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo NMDA (N-metil-D-aspartato) estariam envolvidos no efeito ansiogênico provocado pela ativação nitrérgica [com injeção local do doador de óxido nítrico (NO), o NOC-9] no CPFmD, haja vista o potencial ansiogênico do glutamato e as interações já conhecidas entre essas neurotransmissões. Para tanto, foram feitos experimentos para (1) caracterizar os efeitos imediatos (após 5 minutos) ou tardios (após 24 horas) do estresse de derrota social e de contenção sobre o comportamento de animais expostos ao labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE); (2) avaliar os efeitos da combinação do estresse de contenção ou de derrota social com a inativação sináptica (através do inibidor inespecífico, CoCl2) do CPFm E no comportamento defensivo de camundongos expostos ao LCE 24h após o evento estressor; (3) investigar os efeitos do antagonismo per se de receptores NMDA e (4) o efeito desse antagonismo sobre a ansiogênese provocada pelo doador de NO sobre o comportamento de animais expostos ao LCE. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que ambos os estressores são ansiogênicos aos 5 minutos, mas a derrota social não provoca aumento de ansiedade 24 h após o estresse. Ainda, a inbição sináptica do CPFmE produz efeito ansiogênico 24 h depois quando associada ao estresse de derrota social (mas não à contenção). Além disso, o bloqueio de receptores NMDA por si provoca efeito ansiolítico e reverte o efeito ansiogênico provocado pelo NO em animais expostos ao LCE. Tomados em conjunto, esses resultados substanciam as evidências sobre a lateralização funcional do CPFm, em que os hemisférios direito e esquerdo parecem possuir diferentes participações na modulação de eventos aversivos.

A exposição prolongada a estressores socio-ambientais induz alterações duradouras nos níveis afetivo, cognitivo e fisiológico característicos de transtornos de ansiedade e depressão. No paradigma de estresse crônico variado (ECV) é possível modelar essas alterações com base na exposição aleatória, intermitente e incerta dos roedores a vários estressores. Porém, alguns indivíduos também demostram uma capacidade notável de adaptação ativa e persistem diante de eventos imprevisíveis e incontroláveis. Sabe-se também que o sistema neural histaminérgico (SNH) é um indicador sensível do estresse e regula as reações defensivas relacionadas. Contudo, pouco se sabe sobre o papel da histamina no modelo de ECV. Considerando ainda que o perfil comportamental dos camundongos estressados pelo ECV seja contraditório, o presente estudo investigou se (1) duas linhagens de camundongos seriam susceptíveis a respostas relacionadas ao estresse; (2) a neurotransmissão histaminérgica estaria envolvida na ansiedade induzida pelo estresse; (3) o tratamento crônico com L-histidina (LH) combinado ou não ao ECV modificaria a expressão de Fos em áreas cerebrais límbicas. Para testar o impacto do protocolo ECV sobre respostas do tipo depressivas, os comportamentos de camundongos Suíços não estressados (NST) e estressados (ST) foram analisados na tarefa de esquiva ativa de duas vias e no teste de suspensão da cauda. Não foi detectado aumento significativo da imobilidade passiva, mas o grupo ST apresentou hiperreatividade na tarefa de esquiva. Como etapa seguinte, os efeitos do ECV no comportamento ansioso dos animais NST e ST foi verificado no labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE). Notavelmente, camundongos C57Bl/6 estressados desenvolveram respostas ansiogênicas, enquanto a linhagem de Suíço exibiu um perfil comportamental heterogêneo no LCE. Estes resultados indicam que o regime de ECV induz um efeito ansiogênico de modo consistente em animais C57Bl/6 adultos, enquanto os camundongos Suíço são resilientes ao protocolo. Além disso, a ansiedade induzida pelo ECV não foi revertida ou potencializada pela administração crônica de LH, enquanto que a estimulação farmacológica prolongada do SNH poderia representar um potencial estresse isoladamente. Adicionalmente, uma hipo-ativação das áreas corticais pré-limbicas e infralímbicas foi relacionada à condição de estresse crônico, sem efeitos resultantes do tratamento farmacológico. A expressão de Fos+ induzida pela exposição ao LCE foi detectada nos subnúcleos lateral, basolateral e central, porém não houve ativação diferencial destes subnúcleos amígdaloides influenciados pelo ECV e/ou tratamento. Assim, os resultados apresentadas corroboram evidências de que respostas ao estresse são genética e experiência-dependentes, resultando em resiliência ou má adaptação de indivíduos e linhagens. Além disso, o ECV foi capaz de causar uma resposta ansiogênica acompanhada de hipo-ativação de subáreas específicas do córtex pré-frontal medial, região cerebral importante na regulação dos comportamentos defensivos e nas respostas psicofisiológicas do estresse. Finalmente, o tratamento crônico com LH não alterou os parâmetros comportamentais e neuroanatômico-funcionais influenciados pelo estresse. / Chronic exposure to socio-environmental stressors leads to a myriad of long-term alterations in affective, cognitive and physiological levels, which typifies prevalent neuropsychiatric disorders. Importantly, chronic variable stress (CVS) is an experimental model for anxiety- and depressive-like disorders based on the random, intermittent, and uncertain exposure to various stressors. Some individuals also show a remarkable ability to adapt and actively cope and persist in the face of such unpredictable and uncontrollable events. Histamine is a sensitive indicator of stressful experiences and modulates the activation of neuroendocrine stress response to influence defensive reactions. However, little is known about the role of histamine on CVS model. While the behavioral profile of CUS-stressed mice is also contradictory, we investigated whether (1) two widely used mouse strains were susceptible to stress-related responses; (2) histaminergic neurotransmission is involved on stress-induced anxiety; (3) L-histidine (LH) chronic treatment combined to CVS changes Fos expression in limbic areas. To test the impact of the CVS protocol on depressive-like responses, the performance of non-stressed (NST) and stressed (ST) Swiss animals was analyzed in the two-way avoidance task and in the tail suspension test. No increased passive immobility was detected, but the ST group did display hyperreactivity in the avoidance task. Next, the effects of CVS on anxiety were examined in the elevated plus maze (EPM). Remarkably, stressed C57Bl/6 developed anxiogenic responses, while Swiss mice displayed a heterogeneous behavioral profile in the EPM. These results indicate that 2-week-long CVS regimen consistently induces anxiogenic-like response in adult C57Bl/6 mice, while Swiss animals seem to be resilient. Additionally, CVS-induced anxiety is not reversed or potentialized by the chronic administration of LH, but the histamine precursor appears to be a potential stressor per se. Importantly, a hypoactivation of the prelimbic and infralimbic cortical areas was related to the chronic stress condition, with no main effects of the pharmacological treatment. EPM induced Fos+ expression was detected in the lateral, basolateral and central subnuclei, without differential activation of these amygdaloid subnuclei provoked by CVS and/or histaminergic stimulation. The present evidences corroborate the concept that stress responses can be genetic- and experience-dependent, resulting in resilience or maladaptation of a particular strain. Also, stress-induced anxiety could be related to a hypoactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex, important brain region in regulating the defensive behaviors and HPA stress response.