A fundamental characterization of hexafluoroalcohol substituted polynorbornene (HFAPNB) was completed to improve the final photoresist formulation using these materials. In this work, it was found that the dissolution behavior of these materials was controlled by the ability of polymer chains to form hydrogen bonds. This ability to form interchain hydrogen bonds was affected by stereochemical changes in the polynorbornene backbone as molecular weights increase. These observed changes in backbone polynorbornene stereochemistry were accurately modeled using the "helix-kink" theory, first described by Ahmed and Ludovice. It was found that several material properties altered the interchain hydrogen bonding within these materials, such as the polydispersity, polymerization catalyst, and the polymer film thickness. However, none of these material properties altered the unusual dissolution behavior observed in these materials. To improve the potential formulation of these materials, the interactions between HFAPNB and resist additives were studied. For all tested photoacid generators, it was found that some interchain hydrogen bonding occurred between resist additive molecules and HFA side groups, which retarded the dissolution rate in the formulated material. In particular, one can create a simple resist using unprotected HFAPNB polymer with an iodonium photoacid generator. Finally, a series of norbornene oligomers were evaluated as potential dissolution inhibitors for HFAPNB. It was found that the dissolution rate of HFAPNB can be completely inhibited with dissolution inhibitors at a loading of 15%.

Area selective atomic layer deposition (ASALD) is demonstrated to be a promising route to perform direct patterned deposition. In particular, methods to modify (or mask) the surface and process parameters to perform selective deposition of titanium dioxide have been developed and investigated in detail. Results indicated that self assembled monolayer based masking methodology posses significant limitations due to challenges associated with obtaining defect free monolayer and absence of traditional patterning techniques. On the other hand, polymer films based masking methodology offer a better alternative to perform ASALD. A number of factors that must be considered in designing a successful ASALD process based on polymer films were identified. These include: reactivity of polymer with ALD precursor, diffusion of ALD precursors through polymer mask and remnant precursor content in the polymer film during ALD cycling. Investigations suggested that ALD nucleation can be successfully blocked on polymer films that do not contain direct OH sites in their backbone. It was observed that sorption of water in the polymer film does not pose a serious limitation however; metal precursor diffusion through the polymer mask was identified as a critical parameter in determining the minimum required masking layer thickness for a successful ASALD process. In addition, a novel ASALD-based top surface imaging (TSI) technique has been developed. The ASALD-TSI process has demonstrated sharp contrast (etch barrier deposition vs exposure dose) and therefore offers the potential to overcome many of the challenges experienced with conventional TSI schemes.

In this study, we have investigated the effect of substrate temperature, use of adhesive layer, deposition rate, annealing and substrate prebaking on the morphology of gold films deposited onto quartz surfaces. For the film growth, physical vapor deposition methods namely electron beam and thermal depositions have been used. Surface morphology of the films have been characterized with atomic force microscopy. Our aim was to confirm the general trends observed for these parameters in our evaporator system for a limited working range in order to produce gold films which are suitable to be used simultaneously for quartz crystal microbalance and helium atom diffraction measurements. At the end of this study, we confirmed the general trends regarding the effect of these parameters stated in literature except annealing process. We obtained a minimum 170 nm2 atomically flat surface with a roughness value smaller than 0.200 nm by thermal deposition method.

<p>Dynamic Combinatorial Chemistry (DCC) is a recently introduced supramolecular approach to generate dynamically interchanging libraries of compounds. These libraries are made of different building blocks that reversibly interact with one another and spontaneously assemble to encompass all possible combinations. If a target molecule, for instance a receptor is added to the system and one or more molecules show affinity to the target species, these compounds will, according to Le Châtelier´s principle, be amplified on the expense of the other non-bonding constituents. To date, only a handful of different systems and formats have been used. Hence, to further advance the technique, especially when biological systems are targeted, new reaction types and new screening methods are necessary. This thesis describes the development of reversible sulfur reactions, thiol/disulfide interchange and transthiolesterification (the latter being a new reaction type for DCC), as means of generating reversible covalent bond reactions. Two different types of target proteins are used, enzymes belonging to the hydrolase family and the plant lectin Concanavalin A. Furthermore, two new screening/analysis methods not previously used in DCC are also presented; the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)-technique and catalytic self-screening.</p>

Les matériaux organiques pour l'électronique moléculaire trouvent de nombreuses applications et se substituent déjà aux semi-conducteurs classiques issus de la chimie minérale. Le travail entrepris a concerné la mise en forme et l'étude de nouvelles matrices polythiophène permettant l'immobilisation de molécules biologiques et la lecture électronique de l'hybridation.<br />Dans une première partie, une nouvelle fonction d'ancrage électroactive a été validée permettant l'immobilisation de molécules sondes par simple condensation d'amines dans des conditions douces. Cette approche autorise un diagnostic électrochimique de l'environnement moléculaire au voisinage de l'interface faisant de ces matrices des supports actifs dans la transduction du signal. Ainsi, nous montrons comment, par l'examen des modifications des propriétés de conduction du polymère, il est possible d'établir la présence ou l'absence d'un brin d'ADN complémentaire dans le milieu d'étude. Par ailleurs, un suivi par microbalance à cristal de quartz des différentes étapes de modification du support a permis de valider ces évènements.<br />Le développement de dispositifs autorisant leur emploi comme outils d'analyses ou comme outils thérapeutiques laisse entrevoir la perspective de diagnostiquer et de réparer des anomalies génétiques responsables du disfonctionnement des protéines. Aussi, dans une deuxième partie, nous présentons des résultats obtenus avec un poly(cyclopentadithiophène) modifié par un groupement électroactif connecté à la chaîne principale par une chaîne conjuguée. La spécificité de cette matrice permet l'immobilisation d'ADN ainsi que la libération électrochimiquement contrôlée en milieu physiologique.

Crystallization of water or water-encaged gas molecules occurs when nuclei reach a critical size. Certain antifreeze proteins (AFPs) can inhibit the growth of both of these, with most representations conceiving of an embryonic crystal with AFPs adsorbing to a preferred face, resulting in a higher kinetic barrier for molecule addition. We have examined AFP-mediated inhibition of ice and clathrate hydrate crystallization, and these observations can be both explained and modeled using this mechanism for AFP action. However, the remarkable ability of AFPs to eliminate „memory effect‟ (ME) or the faster reformation of clathrate hydrates after melting, prompted us to examine heterogeneous nucleation. The ubiquitous impurity, silica, served as a model nucleator hydrophilic surface. Quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) experiments indicated that an active AFP was tightly adsorbed to the silica surface. In contrast, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinylcaprolactam (PVCap), two commercial hydrate kinetic inhibitors that do not eliminate ME, were not so tightly adsorbed. Significantly, a mutant AFP (with no activity toward ice) inhibited THF hydrate growth, but not ME. QCM-D analysis showed that adsorption of the mutant AFP was more similar to PVCap than the active AFP. Thus, although there is no evidence for „memory‟ in ice reformation, and the structures of ice and clathrate hydrate are distinct, the crystallization of ice and hydrates, and the elimination of the more rapid recrystallization of hydrates, can be mediated by the same proteins.

Bond rupture is an experimental methodology that is used to augment a conventional mass balance biosensor. A good point-of-care biosensor is fast, reliable, simple, cost-effective, and detects low concentrations of the target analyte. Biosensor development is a multidisciplinary field and bond rupture testing is of technical interest to many groups. The Bond rupture methodology endows a mass probe with the ability to discern bond strength. The recognition of specific bonds by mass loading is separated from erroneous non-specific binding by a probe of the force between the analyte and the transducer. Bond rupture is achieved by acoustic excitation of the point of attachment. The force is incremented gradually until rupture occurs. The advancement of bond rupture biosensors beyond the lab requires improved understanding of the mechanisms of bond rupture by base excitation, the transducers, and the supporting hardware. Bond rupture has traditionally been used in conjunction with the Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM). There exists, however, a variety of sensors and transducers to which the bond rupture methodology could be applied. The time, cost and experience required for comprehensive investigation of all avenues is prohibitive. To further the development of bond rupture characteristic experiments are designed and carried out on the QCM platform. Numerical simulations are constructed which model the current bond rupture approach. This work is limited to the simulation of bond rupture by base excitation. From the results of the experimental investigation a number of improvements to the bond rupture technique are proposed. Improvements are tested by simulation and the Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) device is selected to advance the bond rupture craft. A prototype SAW bond rupture device is designed. The prototype device is manufactured and tested, confirming the principle of SAW bond rupture. Future work is required to progress the SAW bond rupture methodology before possible integration with other sensor systems. Because of this work, and the evaluation of the SAW bond rupture prototype, much is learned about the advancement of SAW device bond rupture.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Polyamic acid-polypyrrole (PAA/PPy) composite films were prepared and characterised for the use as conducting platforms in the design of biosensor systems. The thin films were synthesised by electrochemical method from a solution containing controlled molar ratio of chemically synthesised polyamic acid (PAA) and pyrrole monomer. Homogenous films were obtained incorporating PAA into electropolymerised polypyrrole (PPy) thin film. The concentration of PAA (1.37 × 10-6 M) was kept fixed throughout the composite ratio analysis, whilst the concentration of PPy was varied from 1.9 × 10-3 M to 9.9 × 10-3 M. The PAA/PPy thin films were electrodeposited at a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) and characterised using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, Atomic Force microscopy (AFM), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrochemical (CV, SWV) techniques. The composition that best represented the homogenous incorporation of PAA into PPy matrix was observed at a PAA/PPy ratio of 1: 4.13 × 10-3. This composite was observed to have two sets of coupled peaks with formal potential 99 mV and 567 mV respectively. The De determined from cyclic voltammetry using the anodic peak currents were found to be twice as high (5.82 × 10-4 cm2/s) as the De calculated using the cathodic peak currents (2.60 × 10-4 cm2/s), indicating that the composite favours anodic electron mobility. Surface morphology and spectroscopy data support the formation of a homogenous polymer blend at the synthesis ratio represented by composite 3. For the construction of a biosensor the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties of the enzyme, luciferase and the analytes i.e naphthalene and fluoranthene were evaluated. Fluorescence spectroscopy studies were carried out to characterize the enzyme’s bioluminescence response in PBS at pH 7. Luciferase showed an absorption peak at 340 nm. The bioluminescence properties of the enzyme with the analytes were explored by fluorescence spectroscopy. The emmision peak at 340 nm gradually decreased as the concentration of each analyte was increased respectively.

A técnica de Microbalança de Cristal de Quartzo (QCM) tem sido utilizada para a aplicação em biossensores. Esta técnica consiste no monitoramento da freqüência de oscilação do cristal de quartzo e a variação de freqüência está relacionada com a variação de massa na superfície do cristal por meio da equação de Sauerbrey. Porém, sabe-se que há discrepância entre a massa calculada pela equação de Sauerbrey e a massa real aderida na superfície do cristal de quartzo, sendo tal discrepância causada por fatores tais como a viscoelasticidade, o que é especialmente observado para macromoléculas e sistemas biológicos. Com a técnica de Admitância Eletroacústica (AE) é possível analisar a massa real devido à análise em separado dos parâmetros que compõem o circuito equivalente do cristal de quartzo e também inferir informações sobre a estrutura das monocamadas montadas sobre a superfície do cristal de quartzo. Neste trabalho foi utilizada técnica de AE para se potencializar e detalhar o estudo da formação de monocamadas automontadas e interações entre diferentes proteínas e carboidratos. Em muitos casos verificou-se que durante a formação de determinadas monocamadas, grande parte da variação de massa estava relacionada a interações fracas e não-específicas. Também durante a formação das monocamadas de tióis de cistamina, verificou-se que a estrutura da monocamada é extremamente dependente das concentrações iniciais de cistamina utilizadas para formar a monocamada. As interações entre proteínas e carboidratos foram realizadas após formação de multicamadas nas quais as proteínas eram imobilizadas para depois estudar-se, então, sua interação com carboidratos específicos. No caso da Jacalina, um tipo de lectina, observou-se interações bastante específicas com a fetuína e interações fracas com a alfa-lactose. A atividade da enzima GumH também foi testada com sucesso utilizando a técnica de AE. / The Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) has been largely used for biosensor applications. This technique consists on monitoring quartz crystal oscillation frequency. The relationship of quartz crystal frequency variation with mass deposited on the crystal surface is described by Sauerbrey´s equation. However, the relationship is not directly inferred and discrepancy exists caused mainly by viscoelasticity features of mass adsorbed on the quartz crystal surface. The viscoelastic influence is very common to be observed especially for macro-molecules and biological systems. By using Electroacoustic Admittance (EA) technique it is possible to calculate and separate the real mass deposited over the quartz crystal from other contributions. Therefore, the EA was used to infer about self-assembly monolayer structure being deposited over the quartz crystal. In this work EA technique was used to study details of self-assembled monolayer formation and specific interactions between different proteins and carbohydrate molecules. It was observed that during monolayer formation the majority of mass variation was related to non-specific interactions. For instance, regarding cystamine monolayer formation it was observed that the monolayer structure is dependent on the cystamine concentrations in the liquid medium. The study of interactions between proteins and carbohydrates was conducted by means of multilayers approach in which the proteins are immobilized previously to study the interaction between its active sites and carbohydrates. In the specific case of Jacalin, a type of lectin, it was observed a large formation of specific bonding between this protein and alpha-lactose or fetuin. The GumH enzyme activity was also tested successfully by using of EA technique.

A deposição em regime de subtensão (DRS) de cádmio e chumbo foi estudada sobre ouro e filmes de selênio em meio ácido. Os estudos foram realizados utilizando a voltametria cíclica (VC) e a microbalança eletroquímica de cristal de quartzo (MECQ). Foi observado que o cádmio e o chumbo se depositam de formas diferentes sobre ouro e sobre os filmes de selênio. O cádmio quando depositado sobre o eletrodo de ouro ocupa um átomo de ouro por ad-átomo, fornecendo uma carga associada à formação da monocamada adsorvida de aproximadamente 42 &micro;C cm-2, que corresponde a um recobrimento de 0,15 monocamadas. Os resultados com a MECQ mostraram que a deposição em regime de subtensão do Cd ocorre com uma forte presença da adsorção de ânions perclorato e bissulfato. A DRS de cádmio sobre os filmes de selênio ocorre de maneira semelhante a que foi observada sobre o eletrodo de ouro, porém a carga total da monocamada adsorvida foi de 195,7 &micro;C cm-2, que é um pouco maior do que a carga total para a formação de uma monocamada de selênio sobre ouro. Além disso, foi observado que o cádmio difunde no filme de selênio, e que a co-adsorção de ânions e água durante a formação da monocamada de cádmio foi negligenciável. O ad-átomo de chumbo ocupa dois átomos de ouro e a carga de formação da monocamada é atribuída a contribuições de dois picos relacionados com a DRS. O recobrimento máximo chega a 0,3 monocamadas de chumbo sobre ouro, com a deposição do tipo loosely packed. O processo de DRS sobre os filmes de selênio ocorre com a formação de um único pico. A formação do segundo pico sofre interferência da formação de H2Se que ocorre na superfície do filme de selênio e modifica o tipo de empacotamento dos ad-átomos de chumbo sobre o substrato eletródico. O recobrimento obtido com a DRS foi de 0,7 monocamadas de chumbo sobre selênio. A co-adsorção de ânions e água foi constante, tanto em estudos sobre o eletrodo de ouro, como sobre os filmes de selênio. O estudo das propriedades dos filmes de selênio modificados por ad-átomos de cádmio e chumbo foi efetuado por medidas de cronoamperometria para altos tempos de polarização. Foi observado que o cádmio difunde para a fase do filme de selênio, em função do seu alto coeficiente de difusão no estado sólido, formando o composto CdSe. Por outro lado, este processo de difusão não foi observado para o chumbo, não havendo evidências de formação do composto PbSe. A combinação da voltametria cíclica com a microbalança eletroquímica de cristal de quartzo possibilitou acompanhar as mudanças nos mecanismos de formação de monocamadas de cádmio e chumbo em potenciais de subtensão, assim como a inibição da formação do H2Se. Este último efeito foi marcante na DRS de chumbo, onde foi alterada a forma de empacotamento do ad-átomo na superfície. / Cd and Pb underpotential deposition (UPD) on gold electrode and selenium thin film, from acid media, were studied using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM). Different form of deposition for cadmium and lead were observed on gold electrode and selenium thin film. The presence of one peak in the positive sweep with a total charge density value between 42 60 &micro;C cm-2 was observed from the results obtained for Cd upd on Au. This result is attributed to a covering of 0.15 0.20 Cd monolayer on gold electrode with the occupation of one active site by each Cd ad-atom. EQCM results suggest a large increase in mass upon Cd upd, which appears to result from co-adsorbed perchlorate and bisulfate anions. The upd of cadmium on the selenium films were similar to the observed on the gold electrode; however with a higher associated charge of 196 &micro;C cm-2. Moreover, the cadmium upd process on selenium is accompanied by the diffusion of cadmium into the bulk of Selenium films. Also, the co-adsorption of anions and water during cadmium deposition on Selenium films were negligenceable. The UPD process of Pb ad-atoms on gold electrodes occurs with the occupation of two gold atoms for ad-atom ones. Two electrochemical processes are observed and the charge values were conferred a low covering the 0.3 monolayer, with a wrapping up of the type loosely packed. The co-adsorption of perchlorate anions and water were observed during UPD process. The UPD process of Pb ad-atoms on the selenium films is complex, and the formation of H2Se modifies the type of wrapping up of lead ad-atoms on the electrode surface. In this case, that the gotten covering were 0.7 monolayer of lead on selenium, were observed the co-adsorption of anions and water in this UPD process. During the studies carried through for cronoamperometry in high times of polarization (UPD potentials) on the Se films were observed that the cadmium spreads out for the phase of the selenium film. This phenomenon occurs due to the high coefficient of diffusion in the solid state of the Cd, allowing the formation of the CdSe. On the other hand, this process of diffusion was not so evident for the lead, that presents a low coefficient of diffusion in the solid state, and thus, do not support the formation of PbSe. The UPD studies by cyclic voltammetry combined with electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance measurements allowed to observe the changes in the monolayers formation mechanisms of cadmium and lead, as well as the inhibition of H2Se formation. This effect was found in the lead UPD, where was modified the form of packing up of the adatom in the surface.