<p>The study aims to explain the role of external causes in René Descartes’s (1594–1650) and Benedictus de Spinoza’s (1632–1677) accounts of the mastery of the passions. It consists in three parts: the mind-body union, the passions and their classification, and the mastery of the passions. </p><p>In the first part I argue that Descartes’s conception of the mind-body union consists in two elements: mind-body interaction and the experience of being one with the body. Spinoza rejects the first element because there cannot be psychophysical laws. He accepts the second element, but goes beyond Descartes, arguing that the mind and body are identical.</p><p>In the second part I discuss the classifications of the passions in the <i>Passions of the Soul</i> and the <i>Ethics</i> and compare them with the one Spinoza presents in the <i>Short Treatise</i>. I explain that <i>hilaritas</i> is an affect that expresses bodily equilibrium and makes it possible for the mind to be able think in a great many ways. Furthermore, I consider the principles of imagination that along with imitation and the striving to persevere provide a causal explanation for the necessary occurrence of the passions. </p><p>In the last part I argue that in Descartes the external conditions do not have a significant role in the mastery of the passions. For Spinoza, however, they are necessary. Commentators like Jonathan Bennett fail to see this. <i>Hilaritas</i> requires a diversity of sensual pleasures to occur. As Medea’s case shows, reason is not detached from Nature. Spinoza attempts to form a stronger human nature and to enable as many people as possible to think adequately. His recognition of the need for appropriate external conditions and a society in which ideas can be expressed freely allows him to present an ethics with a practical application, instead of another utopia or fiction.</p>

Infertility is a frequently occurring chronic health condition, which often persists throughout the reproductive years. Heightened anxiety symptoms often are comorbid with infertility diagnoses. Women experiencing infertility, and particularly those with anxiety symptoms, characterize an emerging population that deserves special attention. However, women experiencing infertility have identified barriers to seeking psychotherapy (e.g., fears of being dismissed from fertility treatment and/or stigmatized). Consequently, women diagnosed with infertility need a psychotherapy that not only can reduce these symptoms, but can also be private and convenient. The current study translated an empirically tested in-person mind/body protocol into an internet-based intervention to suit the needs of this population. Seventy-one women were randomly assigned to the intervention or a wait-list control. At the close of the study, only three participants had completed the intervention. At mid-assessment, relative to the wait-list group, the intervention group had a lower level of depressive symptoms and, for those with elevated anxiety symptoms at baseline, a lower level of anxiety symptoms. The findings suggest that even a partially completed internet-based intervention can reduce the anxiety and depressive symptoms of women with a diagnosis of infertility.

Dans la posture émergentiste classique et sa réinterprétation par les premières sciences cognitives, la notion d'émergence ne fait que traduire un consensus anti-réductionniste et n'a aucune véritable pertinence explicative. Pourtant aujourd'hui, les systèmes multi-agents en informatique et la théorie des systèmes dynamiques non linéaires en physique et en biologie, permettent d'ouvrir la «boîte noire» de l'émergence.Il devient possible de définir l'émergence non plus comme la survenance magique de propriétés ontologiquement irréductibles, mais comme la bifurcation dynamique d'un système vers une organisation macroscopique robuste computationnellement et fonctionnellement irréductible, c'est-à-dire non interprétable en termes des propriétés micro-causales du niveau de base. Les propriétés émergentes n'existent qu'en tant qu'elles sont fonctionnelles pour un détecteur de haut niveau.Si des systèmes physiques peuvent instancier des propriétés fonctionnellement irréductibles et relatives à un certain niveau de détection, alors l'irréductibilité fonctionnelle n'est par un argument contre le physicalisme, etil n'est plus possible d'affirmer qu'une propriété n'est pas fonctionnelle simplement parce que l'on ne parvient pas à la fonctionnaliser, puisque son impossible fonctionnalisation peut signifier que l'on ne se situe pas au bonniveau de détection. L'irréductibilité fonctionnelle des propriétés phénoménales ne serait donc pas un argument suffisant pour les exclure du domaine physique. La notion d'émergence ne permet pas de résoudre le problème corps-esprit, mais elle permet d'envisager qu'un tel « problème difficile » puisse survenir dans cadrephysicaliste. / In the classical emergentist position and its re-interpretation within the early cognitive sciences, the notion of emergence transposes only an anti-reductionist consensus and does not contain any pertinent explicative value. Yet today, as a consequence of the multi-agent systems in informatics along with dynamic non-linear theories in both physics and biology, the formerly dubious notion of emergence has become a relevant and informative concept.Emergence was defined as magic supervenience of ontologically irreducible properties. Today in contrast, one views the notion of emergence in terms of dynamic bifurcations to a robust macroscopic organization computationally and functionally irreducible, that is to say it can not be analyzed in terms of their micro-causal components. Emergent properties exist if and only if they are functional for a higher level of detection.This means that functional irreducibility is not an argument against physicalism, nor is it possible to state that a certain property is not functional simply because we are unable to give it a functional interpretation, for itmight signify that one is not situated within the correct level for its detection. The functional irreducibility of some phenomenal properties will not therefor be a sufficient argument to exclude them from the physical realm. The notion of emergence does not resolve the mind-body problem but it does permit considering that such a problem can occur within the physical world.

Thesis advisor: Marilee Ogren / The suggestion of a mind-brain duality that emerges out of Descartes’ cogito argument is assessed in the context of twenty-first century neuroscience. The Cartesian texts are explored in order to qualify the extent to which the cogito necessitates such dualism and the functions that Descartes attributes to a non-corporeal soul are precisely defined. The relationship between the mind and brain is explored in the context of a number neuroscientific phenomena, including sensory perception, blindsight, amusia, phantom limb syndrome, frontal lobe lesions, and the neurodevelopmental disorder Williams syndrome, with an attempt to illuminate the physiological basis for each. Juxtaposing the two perspectives, the author concludes that Descartes hypothesis of a disembodied soul is no longer necessary and that a purely physiological understanding of the human mind is now possible, and that there is an underlying affinity between this assertion and Descartes theory of mind. / Thesis (BS) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program. / Discipline: Psychology.

Esta tese examina o possível vínculo entre história de vida e doença, com a sua respectiva evolução, admitindo que o percurso existencial guarda conexão com o desfecho do quadro e oferece indicadores para o estabelecimento do prognóstico, vendo o ser humano como unidade mente-corpo. Apresta-se para o tema incursionando na relação entre a prognose e a medicina contemporânea; dialogando com Foucault acerca da influência da anatomia patológica no reducionismo da clínica médica; ensaiando em torno da analogia entre os métodos científicos e a sexualidade a partir dos mitos Adão e Eva. O estudo baseia-se na premissa de que o prognóstico pode ser estratificado em cinco tipos: Complicado ou muito desfavorável, Progressivoou moderadamente desfavorável, Estagnado ou incerto, Residual ou moderadamente favorável e Resolvido ou muito favorável, dependendo especialmente de como o indivíduo aproveitou a principal oportunidade e a maneira que lidou com a maior dificuldade de sua vida, além de situações marcantes de sua experiência psicoafetiva ou realização pessoal. Recorre-se em paralelo à abordagem holística prevalente na homeopatia, clareando, porém, alguns pontos obscuros ao identificar que o seu modelo para efetuar o prognóstico limita-se à reação do paciente ao medicamento homeopático ou à gravidade da doença, ignorando a sua trajetória de vida. A pesquisa selecionou quinze de quarenta pacientes em tratamento atual ou pregresso, com qualquer modalidade de câncer, no Hospital do Câncer de Rio Branco e na Associação Amigos do Peito (Abrigo), de ambos os sexos, todos com idade entre 20 e 70 anos. Utilizou-se roteiro semiestruturado de 9 questões, sendo 3 sobre a doença e 6 a respeito de sentimentos ou fatos pretéritos relevantes. As informações permitiram verificar tanto as interseções no agrupamento dos três pacientes de cada tipo prognóstico, quanto as nítidas diferenças dos quinze entre si. A história de vida dos pacientes considerados Complicadoevidencia revolta e/ou inconformação súbita; no Progressivo, conflitos que se acentuam lenta e continuamente; no Estagnado, dificuldades, carências e antagonismos prolongados, mas conservando-se nomesmo patamar; no Residual, morosidade na solução das pendências, seguida por resiliência exitosa; no Resolvido, prontidão para sanar os desafios, com solidariedade e altruísmo. Maior gravidade da doença, óbitos e metástases em relação aos demais tipos predominam no Complicado e Progressivo; o quadro tende a recidiva ou sequela no Estagnado, à remissão no Residual, e casos curados há diversos anos no Resolvido. Concluiu-se que, embora o prognóstico fundamentado na história de vida careça de mais pesquisas, fornece já elementos para corroborar a atividade clínica em diversos campos profissionais, e também pode subsidiar ações voltadas para a saúde pública, em especial no campo preventivo. / This thesis examines the possible link between life history and disease with its respective evolution, admitting that the existential course keeps connection with the outcome and provides indicators for the establishment of the prognosis, seeing the mind-body as unity. The author insoles the theme exploring the relationship between the prognosis and the contemporary medicine;dialoguing with Foucault about the influence of the histopathology in the reductionism of the medical clinic;essaying around the analogy between scientific methods and sexuality from the myths, Adam and Eve.The study is based on the premise that the prognosis can be stratified into five types: Complicatedor very unfavorable, moderately or Progressive, Stagnantor uncertain, Residualor moderately favorable or very favorable or Resolved, depending on how the particular individual took the main chance and the way it dealt with the greatest difficulty of his life besides remarkable situations of his psychoaffective experience. It appeals in parallel to the holistic approach, prevalent in homeopathy, clearing, however, some shady spots in its vision of the mind-body unity, which makes the prognosis inside the limits of the patient\'s reaction to the homeopathic medicine or to the severity of the disease, ignoring the trajectory of his life.The research has selected fifteen between 40 interviewed patients, in current or former treatment of cancer in the Hospital do Câncer de Rio Brancoand the Associação dos Amigos do Peito (Abrigo), of both sexes, all of them aged between 20 and 70 years. The life story of patients considered Complicated evidence sudden revolt and/or non conformity;in the Progressive, conflicts that rises slowly and continuously;in the Stagnant, prolonged difficulties, inadequacies and antagonisms that remains in the same level;in the Residual, delay in solution of disputes, followed by successful resilience;in the Resolved, readiness to settle the challenges, with solidarity and altruism.Greater severity of illness, deaths and metastasis in relation to other types prevail in the Complicated and Progressive;the clinic picture tends torecurrence or sequelin theStagnant;to the remission in the Residual, and to have being cured several years before,in the Resolved.It was concluded that, although the prognosis based on life story requires more research, it already provides elements to support the clinical activity in various professional fields, and can also support actions directed to public health, particularly in the preventive field.

Este trabalho discute valores pedagógicos associados ao corpo na tradição oriental, em diálogo com o pensamento filosófico do Ocidente. Discute uma concepção abrangente de corpo, sugerida pela antiga palavra japonesa Mi () em relação com a Cerimônia do Chá (Chanoyu)(), uma instituição que, de certo modo, resume em si a visão oriental de educação (Zen, Tao, ritos, corpo na educação etc.). Este é precisamente o método da antropologia filosófica segundo Josef Pieper (método que assumimos nesta tese): já que não se dá acesso direto ao ser do homem, mas só por caminhos indiretos, a partir de instituições, linguagem (comum) e seus modos de agir. Além do Chanoyu (neste trabalho, mera referência e não uma proposta curricular), a língua japonesa oferece também importantes indicações para a Antropologia: particularmente a palavra Mi, que aponta para um corpo expandido, relacional, e transcendente (em oposição ao corpo fragmentado, isolado proposto pela moderna filosofia ocidental desde Descartes , realidade estanque na dicotomia mente/corpo). O Chanoyu remete ao Chado (caminho do chá) (), todo um estilo de vida, com seus valores pedagógicos: voltar-se e abrir-se para o Outro, generosidade, reverência, criatividade e espontaneidade, sintonia com a natureza, ligação com a sabedoria histórica, contemplação etc. Também esses valores só podem ser acessados de modo indireto. E são especialmente importantes quando a maior parte de nossa cultura escolar contemporânea ocidental (tendência que se faz presente também no moderno Oriente) enfatiza e estimula habilidades e objetivos racionais, obtidos por meio de procedimentos operacionais, deixando pouco espaço para os valores tradicionais do Oriente: dom, voz média, ritos, educação do fingir (na qual o corpo age sobre o espírito) etc. (valores que também pertencem à tradição ocidental antiga e medieval: examinamos o caso de Tomás de Aquino). A educação propiciada pela experiência integrada: corpo que pensa mente que sente, emerge em contínua interação humana e em face da natureza. Daí a conexão com os principais valores do Chado: harmonia ( wa), respeito ( kei), pureza ( sei) e tranquilidade ( jaku). Além do wabi. Ao discutir esses temas, uma ferramenta metodológica importante nos é dada pelo pensamento confundente. Nossas conclusões apontam para uma concepção de educação na qual a dicotomia mente / corpo deve ser substituída por uma educação integrada para um ser integrado. O Chanoyu oferece um caminho. / This dissertation discusses pedagogical values in Eastern Tradition compared to Western Philosophy of Education. A comprehensive conception of body suggested by the ancient Japanese word Mi () is examined in association with Tea Ceremony (Chanoyu) (), an institution which, in a certain way, epitomizes Eastern focus (Zen, Tao, rites and education, body and education etc.). Precisely this is the anthropological method according to Josef Pieper (model which we assume): since there is no direct access to human being itself, but only by indirect means, examining institutuions, common language and ways of acting is required. Besides the Chanoyu (and in this dissertation, Chanoyu is just a reference: we do not propose Chanoyu in brazilian schools), Japanese common language also offers important hints on Anthropology: specially the word Mi, for the expanded body, the relational body, transcendent body (in opposition to the fragmented, isolated body of the modern western Philosophy since Descartes , separated by the mind/body dicothomy from the whole of human reality). Chanoyu is associated to Chado (), the way of tea, with its pedagogical values: turning and opening to the other, generosity, creativity and spontaneity, linked with history, living in tune with nature, beholding etc. These values also can be accessed only trough an indirect way. And are specially important today, when the most part modern Western School Education (and even the Modern Eastern world) stresses and encourages skills and behaviour goals, to be obtained by means of established operational procedures and there is little room for Eastern traditional way: gift, middle voice, rites, pretending education (in which body influences spirit) etc. (although Ancient and Medieval Western Tradition we examine the case of Thomas Aquinas fostered these values too). Education through integrated experience, thinking body - feeling mind, emerging in continuous human interaction and facing nature. And so the main principles Chado set forward: harmony ( wa), respect ( kei), purity ( sei), and tranquility ( jaku); are still central to Chanoyu, tea ceremony. Wabi is also examined. In discussing such matters, confounding thinking (Ortega y Gasset) is another important methodological tool. Our conclusions point to a conception of education in which mind / body dicothomy must be replaced by an integrated education for an integrated being. Chanoyu shows a way.

Medically Unexplained Symptoms (MUS) are bodily symptoms for which no organic cause has been identified, and which result in significant levels of psychological distress and functional impairment. MUS are thought to be highly prevalent in primary care settings, and have considerable costs to society. Despite evidence of overlapping psychological and physical presentations, MUS are not well understood or treated in culture that predominantly views the body through the lenses of dualism and mechanistic reductionism. An alternative 'interactive' view of the body as playing a more dynamic role is elaborated through George Kelly's (1955) Personal Construct Psychology. The author draws upon Lin & Payne's (2014) 'frozen construing' theory, and empirical literature on relationships between identity and MUS, to suggest that for people with MUS, the symptomatic body is distressing because the person is struggling to integrate its meaning with their identity. It is hypothesized that embodied processes, that may actually protect the self (and others who share a construct system with that person) from events which threaten to dramatically alter how the self is construed, are difficult to understand because of their preverbal nature. Hence symptoms, and the body itself, are dissociated from the person's more elaborated verbal self-constructions. Several hypotheses relating to this suggestion were tested using a modified form of the repertory grid technique that was designed to explore construct systems of both mind and body, for self and others. Twenty participants with MUS, recruited from the community, completed the repertory grid interviews and measures of depression, anxiety and symptom severity, which were correlated with relevant repertory grid indices to test hypotheses. Findings indicated that symptom constructs, contrary to expectations, were well integrated into participants' construct systems. The alleviation of psychological distress was significantly associated with increased perceived distance between the self in general and the self when symptoms are worst (a relationship which appeared to be independent of severity of symptoms), providing evidence of a process of dissociation that protected the current self from assimilating the undesirable characteristics that were associated with the symptom. The way in which the self when symptoms are worst is construed appeared to influence levels of distress, with more predictive power than several other indices. The study also found evidence for some participants of hypothesized relationships between desired aspects of the current self and symptoms, that would imply that symptom disappearance would actually threaten a desirable aspect of how the self is construed. Content analysis of these constructs revealed (as predicted) that such desirable aspects of self tended to relate to being responsible and sensitive to the needs of others, and were elaborated through bodily constructs in a way that suggested that they were not well integrated with the primary ways that these participants made sense of their identity. For these particular participants, discrepancies between the ideals that they had for themselves, and how they would like to be seen by others, were associated with increased depression. Several participants were identified whose constructions of self and others were dominated by constructs relating to both mental and physical strength and weakness. These participants appeared to be struggling to find coherent meaning for themselves as the result of symptoms, which were regarded as invalidating a pre-symptom construal of themselves as being 'strong'. There seemed to be a continuum of being a 'body for others' on the one hand, a previously 'strong person' on the other, and a person who is 'strong for others' in the middle. Implications for clinical practice are discussed. Although the findings of the current study are limited by a small sample size, it appears that exploring the meaning of the body in the construction of self helps to elaborate the meaning of the body and symptoms in a verbal, expressible form. This process is likely to be helpful to those who struggle to find meanings for their symptoms both in their own construct systems and in a society that objectifies the body.

Is osteoarthritis a fate unconditionally vested in genetic makeup, or are joints aggravated into inflammation by the way they are treated? Humans are a complicated conglomeration of experiences, decisions, and inheritance. Osteoarthritis, likewise, has evaded simplicity in any explanation of its causation, so it necessitates a multi-dimensional perspective. This research considers the relevance of Alexander Technique in filling a void in which treatment and management of osteoarthritis is not equally equipped to answer this multi-dimensional causation. Alexander Technique is classified as a movement therapy, but this does not quite encompass the mindset of it—that it is indeed largely a mindset about movement. More concisely, Alexander Technique emphasizes self-awareness about how a person uses his or her body to perform daily tasks. It is physical minimalism, and involves continual recognition of muscle tension along with the ability to let go of any tension that is burdensome and unnecessary. This technique has diminished pain and increased the ease of movement for those who have experienced it, even people with osteoarthritis. To build the argument that osteoarthritis can be hindered through a heightened consideration of how joints are treated, the initial component of this research investigated the vast amount of information already gleaned about the pathogenesis of this disease. The fields of physiology, genetics, immunology, and clinical practice already have much to share, and this knowledge has been combined with studies about the benefits and goals of Alexander Technique to discover the common ground of osteoarthritis treatment. The experimental component assesses the association of Alexander Technique to the minimization of pain from osteoarthritis. An online survey asks osteoarthritis cohorts about the history of their disease, the effect it has had on their pain levels and activities of daily living, and about the efficacy of their management strategies. Because each participant will be asked if he or she has received Alexander Technique lessons, the survey can be used to analyze each respondent’s experience of osteoarthritis with respect to that. It was found that participants who had received Alexander Technique lessons reported an average of one more pain-free day per week, and experienced diminished pain levels for daily physical activities such as walking. Management strategies also indicated the benefit of Alexander Technique; those who had taken lessons less frequently used pain and anti-inflammatory medications and were able to be more physically active than the unexposed group. No statistical significance was achieved from the data, largely owing to small sample size (Alexander Technique, n=12, no Alexander Technique, n=25). This study is a step in the direction of better osteoarthritis management, promoting prevention-minded awareness of joint use and providing preliminary fuel for more extensive research.

Interpersonal sensitivity is a foundational component of interpersonal relationships. It encompasses an individual's self-concept and self-identity, which are formed as the individual develops. An individual's self-concept develops from the norms and mores of his or her society. Soldiers in the U.S. Army have been trained to form a repurposed self to engage in combat and work in combat-focused jobs. The consequence of this training in many cases has been diminished interpersonal sensitivity that has been detrimental to their interpersonal relationships. The Soldier 360° course is a comprehensive treatment program that takes a holistic approach to providing soldiers with self-empowering tools designed to create healing and wellness from the inside out for the individual and for his or her relationships. Deidentified data obtained from Soldier 360° participant scores on the Symptoms Checklist-90-Revised and the Quality of Life Inventory were measured using repeated-measures analysis of variance to examine the effect, if any, of the Soldier 360° program on soldiers' interpersonal sensitivity and overall quality of life. Furthermore, changes based on marital status, parental status, and gender were examined. The findings of this quantitative analysis indicated that there is improvement in the interpersonal sensitivity of participants in the Soldier 360° program; however, no significant effect was found in the categorical examinations. This research contributes to positive social change by expanding knowledge researchers, practitioners, and soldiers themselves can use to help soldiers reclaim their lives, maintain successful relationships, and reduce incidence of suicide.

Approximately 200,000 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries occur each year with about 100,000 of these injuries undergoing reconstruction (ACLR). The impetus of ACLR is to allow previously high functioning, physically active individuals to return to desired levels of sports participation and to engage in recommended levels of physical activity. However, 1 out of 3 patients after ACLR fail to return to competitive levels of sport and meet recommended levels of physical activity. Injury-related fear has been cited as the primary barrier for failure to return to sport. However, the research has been primarily qualitative in nature and limited research has quantitatively examined the impact of injury-related fear on return to sport and physical activity engagement in this population. In addition to quantifying the impact of injury-related fear, no research has examined the underlying neural substrates associated with injury-related fear after ACLR. Previous research has demonstrated that patients after ACLR undergo neuroplasticity in sensorimotor regions of the brain and exhibit changes in neurocognitive functioning. Despite previous research in other musculoskeletal pathologies demonstrating neuroplasticity in emotional regulation centers of the brain, no research has examined these brain regions in patients after ACLR. Furthermore, previous research in healthy athletes has suggested that psychosocial impairments can lead to changes in neurocognitive functioning, including reaction time. Understanding these neural substrates could provide insight into appropriate intervention strategies to decrease injury-related fear, increase return to sport and physical activity engagement, and potentially improve neurocognitive functioning in patients after ACLR. The purpose of this dissertation was to further investigate the effects of injury-related fear on patients after ACLR and to determine the efficacy of a cognitive behavioral intervention to decrease injury-related fear in this population. The purposes of these studies were to determine whether patient-based, specifically psychological, and functional outcomes were associated with return to sport and physical activity levels in individuals with a history of ACLR, to determine differences in brain activation patterns when exposed to fear-eliciting stimuli in individuals with a history of ACLR compared healthy matched controls, and to determine the efficacy of in vivo exposure therapy on self-reported fear and reaction times in participants post-ACLR. The results of these studies indicate that injury-related fear was quantitatively associated with return to sport and physical activity engagement in patients after ACLR. Additionally, individuals with a history of ACLR activated emotional regulation centers of the brain in greater depth when compared to healthy matched controls. Lastly, in vivo exposure therapy decreased self-reported injury-related fear for specific functional tasks but did not improve general fear response or reaction time in post-ACLR participants. The results of these studies objectively elucidate the negative impact of injury-related fear in patients with a history of ACLR.