I develop a novel semantic theory for modals that has important consequences for contemporary work in epistemology, metaphysics and ethics. My theory replaces the dominant view about semantics--that our best theory of meaning should ascribe truth-conditions to modalized sentences--with a non-truth-conditional yet fully compositional semantics for modals. Its contributions to current debates in analytic philosophy include an explanation of the possibility of modal disagreement that avoids relativism, a solution to the paradoxes about conditional obligations (including the gentle murder paradox), and new impulses for a generalized solution to the Frege-Geach problem for noncognitivism. / text

This dissertation explores the interaction between modality and aspect in Makkan Arabic (MA). There is some consensus in the semantic literature regarding the treatment of modal expressions that may obtain various flavours, such as epistemic, deontic, bouletic, ability, necessity or teleological. These various modal flavours can be captured by a unified lexical entry, and are identified by contextual factors Kratzer (1977, 1981, 1991, 2012). There is some debate regarding the structural location of modal elements, some of which have been argued to be high (the case of epistemic modals) and others low (the case of root modals) (e.g. Cinque (1999)). The relative scope of modals has been subject of much recent work on modality, in particular in relation to their interaction with temporal categories such as aspect. This thesis investigates this topic on the basis of novel data from MA. I observe that the flavour of modality can change depending on how it is inflected with different types of aspect in MA. This observation is in line of Hacquard; Hacquard; Hacquard’s (2006; 2009; 2014) proposal for French and Italian. In MA, when the root modal \gdr\ “can” is inflected with the perfective, the combination yields entailments that have come to be known in the literature as ‘actuality entailments’ (AEs) (see Bhatt (1999, 2006)). In this case, the speaker gives rise to the inference that the proposition expressed by the complement holds in the actual world (instead of merely in some possible but not actual world). My thesis integrates the case of \gdr\ to current cross-linguistic debates on this topic. Building on Hacquard’s work, I argue that AEs are generated when perfective aspect scopes over root modals. Perfective aspect links events to the actual world. Imperfective aspect scoping over the modal fails to generate AEs. My thesis ex- ii tends the investigation of AEs to non-perfective cases. I argue that in addition to the contrast between perfective and imperfective, MA also distinguishes perfect aspect (e.g. an auxiliary plus a modal participle like gaadir). I suggest that the perfect in MA has several shapes, including the choice between two auxiliaries: kaan and saar. I link the different shapes of the perfect to the different types of interpretation identified by Portner (2000, 2003) for the English perfect. I suggest that in MA, different forms of the perfect are linked to distinct interpretations (which in English are grouped together under one form). In addition I show that, contrary to what has been argued by Hacquard for French, the perfect in MA can give rise to AEs in the case of the saar auxiliary. I develop an analysis of the saar perfect that is inspired by Hacquard’s proposal for perfective: in the case of saar, contrary to kaan, the perfect links the eventuality to the actual world. While the discussion of AEs in relation to the modal \gdr\ are linked to the proposal that aspect scopes over the modal, I also examine the case of a modal expression that scopes over aspect: qad “might”. I show that in spite of the fact that aspect scopes below the modal, the contrast between perfective and imperfective in the embedded clause can still give rise to differences in the generation of AEs. This case is interesting because much previous literature on AEs has focused on languages in which aspect scopes over the modal. MA qad provides an example where the modal scopes over aspect, and it is still the case that AEs appear to be generated. In spite of the structural differences with \gdr\, my analysis of qad builds on Hacquard’s proposal for AEs with the perfective, appealing to her proposal for the ‘preservation of event description’ to account for the fact that properties of eventualities can remain stable across worlds. The structure of the thesis is as follows: Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the empirical domain, situating aspect and modality in the description of MA; in addition it iii provides an introduction to key theoretical concepts to be used in later chapters. Chapter 2 discusses AEs in the case of the root modal \gdr\, comparing perfective and imperfective. Chapter 3 extends the discussion of the modal to examples with the perfect, distinguishing between the kaan- and saar- perfects. Chapter 4 investigates the behaviour of qad and its interaction with perfective and imperfective complements. Chapter 5 offers a brief summary and concluding remarks.

Master of Arts / Department of Modern Languages / Earl K. Brown / Considerable research exists on the various uses of modals of obligation in English, while the number of studies on Spanish modals is limited. The research of Fairclough (2000) looks at the variation and changes of the Spanish modals DEBER 'should' and TENER QUE ‘to have to’ spoken in Houston. Another study was conducted on modals and their variation in San Juan, Puerto Rico by Jose Santos (1994). However, most of the research does not include the verb NECESITAR 'to need'. This study examines and compares the uses of the modal verbs TENER QUE and NECESITAR. First, this paper presents previous research on modality, the changes and usage of modals in English, and the limited research on Spanish modals. Then the researcher examines the results of data collected using Twitter in order to determine for what main verbs TENER QUE and NECESITAR act as modal verbs, the frequency with which the Twitter users in the Spanishspeaking capitals in Central and South America use these verbs, and in what tense do these two modals occur most often. After discussing the results of the data collection, the study includes a brief discussion on the implications for teaching modals of obligation in Spanish to second language learners. This study finds overall that TENER QUE is preferred over NECESITAR. However, some verbs collocate with NECESITAR more than the average suggesting that patterns of collocations play a key role in determining the use of NECESITAR.

O presente estudo objetivou caracterizar a logística de transporte do Estado do Tocantins, para a distribuição do etanol levando em consideração o modal rodoviário e ferroviário. Para atender a este objetivo, esta pesquisa quanto aos fins foi do tipo descritiva. O procedimento de coleta de dados foi dividido em duas etapas: a primeira etapa consistiu na realização de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental, que deram apoio ao desenvolvimento do referencial teórico e análise dos resultados do trabalho. Na segunda etapa deste trabalho foi realizada a pesquisa de campo, onde foram aplicados questionários junto a profissionais especializados na área e feitas entrevistas a gestores públicos. No que se refere à análise dos dados e interpretação dos resultados realizou-se uma abordagem qualitativa. Os resultados apresentaram enfoque regional, compreendendo a caracterização da logística do modal rodoviário e ferroviário e a caracterização da logística de transporte das regiões potenciais identificadas por Collicchio (2008). Descrevendo os principais parâmetros referentes à produção agroindustrial da cana-de-açúcar e os parâmetros referentes à logística de transporte de etanol. Concluiu-se que o modal rodoviário é o mais utilizado para a movimentação da logística do setor agrícola em estudo, no entanto, o sistema ferroviário depois de concluído será um importante modal para o transporte de etanol no Tocantins. A caracterização da logística se mostrou importante instrumento para conhecer a região em estudo e para identificar quais os fatores que interferem na logística local, possibilitando ações de melhoria. Espera-se que os estudos na área da logística do setor sucroalcooleiro para produção de etanol ainda possam viabilizar muitas melhorias ao sistema como um todo, minimizando os custos logísticos e contribuindo para o desenvolvimento do setor. / The present study aimed to characterize the transport logistics of the State of Tocantins, for the distribution of ethanol taking into account the modals road and rail. To meet this goal, this research as the purpose was descriptive. The procedure for data collection was divided into two stages: the first stage consisted of literature and documents, which have supported the development of the theoretical analysis and the results of the work. In the second stage of this work was carried out field research where questionnaires were administered with professionals specialized in the area and made interviews with public managers. As regards the analysis of data and interpretation of the results was carried out a qualitative approach. The results showed regional focus, including the characterization of logistics modal road and rail and the characterization of the transport logistics of the potential regions identified by Collicchio (2008). Describing the main parameters for agroindustrial production of cane sugar and the parameters related to the logistics of transporting ethanol. It was concluded that road transport is the most used for handling the logistics of the agricultural sector in the study, however, the rail system will be completed after a major modal to transport ethanol in Tocantins. The characterization of the logistics proved important tool to explore the region under study and to identify the factors that affect the local logistics, enabling improvement actions. It is hoped that studies in logistics sector sugarcane for ethanol production may still facilitate many improvements to the system as a whole, minimizing logistics costs and contributing to the development of the sector.

Submitted by Neusa Fagundes (neusa.fagundes@unioeste.br) on 2018-02-27T12:17:38Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Talita_Quadros2017.pdf: 3672889 bytes, checksum: 662c90d816bac4e44956db64813b9097 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-27T12:17:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Talita_Quadros2017.pdf: 3672889 bytes, checksum: 662c90d816bac4e44956db64813b9097 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-21 / The present research comes from the need of promoting reflection on an important aspect of the teaching/ learning process of linguistic analysis: the use of elements that delimit positioning. This justification promoted a study on the performance of modals elements in excerpts from texts of elementary and middle school students from a countryside public school in a city from Parana State. It was based on the analysis of the collected material in the databank of the projects Theoretical Application and Reflection in the Classroom: linguistic analysis as a support for the production of texts from students of a public school in the State of Paraná (ART) and Diagnostics and Theoretical Application in Classroom: verification of the performance and evaluation of the teaching of linguistic analysis and textual production of high school students of a public school in the State of Parana (DAT). The basic and qualitative research was subsidized by authors dealing with linguistic modality, such as Castilho and Castilho (1992), Neves (2006), Corbari (2008/2013), Koch (2009) and Sella (2011). This course, based on the definition of study focus, theoretical reference reading, data collection and interpretation of the data collected, motivated to verify in the analyzed excerpts how the modal pair “é + adjetivo” and the verb can indicates points of view that sometimes are linked to the most internal and sometimes to the most external layers of significance. The goal is to interpret the occurrence of these modalities on text excerpts written by students who participated in the aforementioned projects, as well as to verify the degree of producers’ engagement with the expressed content which were expressed through these structures. The layers verification allowed us to evaluate the engagement degree established with the propositional content. This study also allowed us to notice established notions of emphasis and attenuation on the analyzed which leads to articulations that indicate negotiations of points of view. / A presente pesquisa nasce da necessidade de promover reflexão sobre aspecto importante do processo ensino-aprendizagem da análise linguística: o emprego de elementos que demarcam posicionamento. Essa justificativa impulsionou estudo sobre a atuação dos modalizadores em recortes de textos de alunos do ensino fundamental e médio, de escola pública do campo de uma cidade do Estado do Paraná. Partiu-se da análise de material coletado no banco de dados dos projetos Aplicação e Reflexão Teórica na Sala de Aula: análise linguística como suporte para a produção de textos de alunos de uma escola pública do Estado do Paraná (ART) e Diagnósticos e Aplicação Teórica em Sala de Aula: verificação do rendimento e avaliação do ensino de análise linguística e produção textual de alunos do ensino médio de uma escola pública do Estado do Paraná (DAT). A pesquisa básica e de cunho qualitativo foi subsidiada por autores que tratam da modalização linguística, como Castilho e Castilho (1992), Neves (2006), Corbari (2008/2013), Koch (2009) e Sella (2011). Esse percurso, pautado em definição de foco de estudo, leitura de referencial teórico, coleta de dados e interpretação dos dados coletados, motivou verificar nos recortes analisados como os modalizadores par é + adjetivo e verbo poder indicam pontos de vista ora vinculados a camadas mais internas, ora a camadas mais externas da significação. Objetivou-se interpretar ocorrências dos modalizadores em tela em recortes de textos de estudantes participantes dos projetos supracitados, além de verificar o grau de engajamento dos produtores com o conteúdo enunciado, expresso por meio de tais estruturas. A verificação dessas camadas proporcionou avaliar o grau de engajamento estabelecido com o conteúdo proposicional. Este estudo permitiu observar que os modalizadores em análise estabelecem noções de ênfase e de atenuação, o que aponta para articulações que indicam negociações de ponto de vista.

This dissertation proposes a novel treatment of deontic modals such as permission, obligation and prohibition with special attention to applicability to legal language.

This study describes the diachronic development of modality in South African English (henceforth SAfE) from the early 19th century up to its contemporary state (1820s to 1990s) in the registers of letters, news, fiction/narrative and non-fiction, on the basis of the theoretical framework of socio historical linguistics and the empirical approach of corpus linguistics. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are conducted for modal and quasi-modal verbs, by means of the newly compiled historical corpus of SAfE and ICE-SA (with the addition of Afrikaans corpora for comparison). The study explores general frequency changes, register-internal changes and macro- and micro semantic changes, with the focus of the main semantic analysis more strongly on the obligation and necessity cluster1. A set of parameters is compiled for analysing the strength of obligation in the modals must and should, and the quasi-modal HAVE to, and is applied in the micro semantic analyses. The findings are compared with the trends for modality in other native English’s, such as American, British and Australian English (cf. e.g. Mair & Leech, 2006; Collins, 2009a; Leech, 2011), in an attempt to present a complete and comprehensive description of SAfE modality, as opposed to the traditional approach of focusing on peculiar features. It is reported that the trends of modality in SAfE correspond to those of other native varieties in some cases, but do not correspond in others. The modals of SAfE for example have declined more and the quasi-modals have increased less over the 20th century than in other native varieties of English. One particular case, in which SAfE is reported to be unique among other varieties, is the quantitative and qualitative trends for must, which has some implications for the manifestation of the democratisation process. Must in SAfE has not declined significantly over the 20th century (as it has in other native varieties) and has become less face threatening, since uses with a median (weaker) degree of force are just as frequent as those with a higher degree of force by the 1990s (unlike in other native varieties, where must has become restricted to high-degree obligative contexts). Based on socio historical, as well as linguistic evidence (on both quantitative and qualitative levels), language contact with Afrikaans is posited as the main influence for the increased use of must in contexts that are not face threatening. Extrapolating from the semantic findings, some new insights are offered regarding the phase in which SAfE finds itself within Schneider’s (2003) model of the evolution of New English’s, and some support is offered for Bekker’s (2012:143) argument that “SAfE is ...the youngest of the colonial varieties of English”, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. Ultimately, this thesis offers a piece in the larger puzzle that is SAfE, both in terms of linguistic (textual) and socio historical (contextual) aspects. / PhD (English), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

This study describes the diachronic development of modality in South African English (henceforth SAfE) from the early 19th century up to its contemporary state (1820s to 1990s) in the registers of letters, news, fiction/narrative and non-fiction, on the basis of the theoretical framework of socio historical linguistics and the empirical approach of corpus linguistics. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are conducted for modal and quasi-modal verbs, by means of the newly compiled historical corpus of SAfE and ICE-SA (with the addition of Afrikaans corpora for comparison). The study explores general frequency changes, register-internal changes and macro- and micro semantic changes, with the focus of the main semantic analysis more strongly on the obligation and necessity cluster1. A set of parameters is compiled for analysing the strength of obligation in the modals must and should, and the quasi-modal HAVE to, and is applied in the micro semantic analyses. The findings are compared with the trends for modality in other native English’s, such as American, British and Australian English (cf. e.g. Mair & Leech, 2006; Collins, 2009a; Leech, 2011), in an attempt to present a complete and comprehensive description of SAfE modality, as opposed to the traditional approach of focusing on peculiar features. It is reported that the trends of modality in SAfE correspond to those of other native varieties in some cases, but do not correspond in others. The modals of SAfE for example have declined more and the quasi-modals have increased less over the 20th century than in other native varieties of English. One particular case, in which SAfE is reported to be unique among other varieties, is the quantitative and qualitative trends for must, which has some implications for the manifestation of the democratisation process. Must in SAfE has not declined significantly over the 20th century (as it has in other native varieties) and has become less face threatening, since uses with a median (weaker) degree of force are just as frequent as those with a higher degree of force by the 1990s (unlike in other native varieties, where must has become restricted to high-degree obligative contexts). Based on socio historical, as well as linguistic evidence (on both quantitative and qualitative levels), language contact with Afrikaans is posited as the main influence for the increased use of must in contexts that are not face threatening. Extrapolating from the semantic findings, some new insights are offered regarding the phase in which SAfE finds itself within Schneider’s (2003) model of the evolution of New English’s, and some support is offered for Bekker’s (2012:143) argument that “SAfE is ...the youngest of the colonial varieties of English”, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. Ultimately, this thesis offers a piece in the larger puzzle that is SAfE, both in terms of linguistic (textual) and socio historical (contextual) aspects. / PhD (English), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

Aquesta recerca s'ocupa de l'evolució semàntica de les perífrasis modals <deure + INF i <haver (a/de) + INF> en català antic, des d'una perspectiva cognitiva. És un estudi de corpus que descriu la gramaticalització de les perífrasis, des que es formen en la llengua llatina fins a la fi del s. XVI. En aquest procés s'observa que des dels significats modals prototípcs, la necessitat deòntica i la necessitat externa, afloren un fum de matisos nous al voltant del futur i l'evidencialitat inferencial. Això provoca canvis en la configuració de la xarxa semàntica i les relacions entre els sentits de cada categoria (Geeraerts 1997). En aquest sentit la gramaticalització d'aquestes perífrasis palesa les regularitats interlingüístiques del canvi semàntic (Traugott & Daser 2002). Aquest estudi reflexiona sobre el canvi semàntic, el mecanismes que hi intervenen i les motivacions que el provoquen. En el marc de la Gramàtica Cognitiva de Langacker (1987, 1991a, 1999b) i les aportacions de Pelyvás (1996, 2000, 2006), es descriu el canvi semàntic en termes d'una atenuació de la força i una progressiva subjectivació. Les construccions evoluciones en la mesura que els usos nous mostren un esquema conceptual diferent del convencional. En efecte, en el cas de les perífrasis <deure + INF> i <haver (a/de) + INF> s'observen canvis en l'esquema conceptual quan afloren els valors de futur i els inferencials, amb la qual cosa la interacció de forces s'esvaeix i deixa al descobert la conceptualització del parlant, el qual esdevé locus de potència.

國 立 政 治 大 學 研 究 所 碩 士 論 文 提 要 研究所別：語言學研究所 論文名稱：論台灣華語中的限定與非限定子句的區分 指導教授：何萬順 博士 研究生：何郁瑩 論文提要內容：〈共一冊，20013字，分七章〉 本篇論文藉由三段邏輯論證法推翻漢語沒有限定與非限定子句之分的論證；反之，支持此區分在台灣華語中的有效性。鑑於「時式」的普遍性，表現在構詞方面的限定與非限定區分在綜合型語言當中是顯而易見的。雖然台灣華語缺乏明顯的構詞標記，但此限定與非限定的區分透過句法類目以及句法現象的限制依然成立。此外，我們亦將次劃分子句為補語的動詞進ㄧ步區分為三類─限定補語動詞、非限定補語動詞、雙類動詞。限定補語動詞可同時次劃分有明顯主語的限定子句以及經由代詞刪略現象後無主語的限定子句，而非限定補語動詞僅能次劃分不帶主語的非限定子句。至於雙類動詞，一類從舊有文獻中劃分出來的新類動詞，擁有同時次劃分限定子句與非限定子句的能力。當雙類動詞次劃分限定子句為補語時，有兩個條件必須被滿足：一是情狀動詞的出現，此為必要條件；二是明顯主語的出現，此為充分條件。再者，子句主語的出現與否端視於主要句謂語與子句謂語間的緩衝詞是否出現。在詞彙功能語法的架構之下，情狀動詞的出現之所以為雙類動詞次劃分限定子句為補語的必要條件是由於雙類動詞要求其子句補語擁有「非實現貌」的元素，而此元素便是由情狀動詞所提供。基於本篇論文中強而有力的論述，我們強烈主張此限定與非限定子句的區分在台灣華語中是存在的，甚至普及於全人類的語言。 / This thesis provides robust argumentation via syllogisms so as to deny the argument that the distinction between finiteness and non-finiteness does not exist in Mandarin Chinese; on the contrary, to defend the proposition that this finite vs. non-finite distinction does exist in Taiwan Mandarin. In virtue of the universality of the category tense, the finite vs. non-finite distinction, morphologically manifested in synthetic languages, is taken for granted. Opaque as it is in Taiwan Mandarin, there still exist other ways for distinction, such as constraints on syntactic categories and operations. Furthermore, we re-classify verbs subcategorizing sentential complements into three types—finite-complement verb (FC verb), non-finite-complement verb (NC verb), dual-listing verb (DL verb). FC verbs can subcategorize not only finite clauses with overt subjects, but also those with covert counterparts left after pro-drop processes, while NC verbs can only subcategorize non-finite clauses as sentential complement. As for DL verbs, a neonatal one extracted from the so-called persuade-type verbs in the literature, has the capability of subcategorizing dual sentential complements, namely, finite clauses and non-finite clauses. When DL verbs subcategorize finite clauses as complement, two conditions must be satisfied to ensure the grammaticality. They are the presence of modals and the presence of overt subjects. The former is a necessary condition; the latter is a sufficient condition. Moreover, the presence of embedded overt subjects hinges on the presence of proper buffers between main predicates and embedded overt subjects. In LFG’s framework, the reason for the presence of modals being the necessary condition is that DL verbs require their sentential complements to have the value IRREALIS, which is denoted by modals obviously. On account of the tenable criteria mentioned in this thesis, we assert with confidence that this finite vs. non-finite distinction does exist in Taiwan Mandarin and that this distinction is considered universal.