The shadow economy is a topic that has been around for many years now. The increasing regulations on cash and the endeavours public authorities made to enlarge the tax base show a clear intention from the public sector to pursue any activity that is carried out outside the borders of what is taxable. This paper uses the Currency Demand Approach (CDA) to estimate the monetary base M0 for Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Spain and for each year from 2002 to 2021 and, subsequently, calculate the size of the shadow economy as a percentage of GDP. To estimate the CDA equation, we employed fixed effects panel data regression. The results show an average shadow economy value of 9,33% for Greece; 13,43% for Italy; 10,78% for Portugal; and 11,11% for Spain. The results have also been compared with those of previous studies that have estimated the shadow economy of other countries using the MIMIC approach, showing that the CDA tends to give lower estimates. Additionally, a common trend was found for the studied countries since after the financial crisis of 2008 and 2014, all of them reached peak values in their shadow economies.

<p> </p><p>This paper is focusing on the responsibility corporations have toward society and what role stakeholders play in this responsibility. By providing a historical background of how corporations have used their responsibility toward society, it is clear that corporations have been responsible. Before, this responsibility was focused toward the shareholders of the corporation but with time it changed to include more actors within the society. By focusing on what kind of responsibility the corporation has towards the society it is active in, this paper will explain the notion of a corporation that has a social responsibility in terms of being morally responsibility for its actions. This is why the concentration of the this paper will be on the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR).</p><p>The notion of CSR has became more significant with time. In today's society corporations are expected to take more responsibility. A reason for this increased expectations from society on corporations could have to do with the fact that stakeholders have gained greater transparency through technological development, mainly the development of information technology.</p><p>The aim of this paper will be to show what role CSR plays for a corporation in today’s society and why a corporation should work more with its different stakeholders and not as before with almost solely its shareholders. To be able to conduct this aim, the notion of CSR will be described and put into perspective by the two main theories behind the concept of CSR: the monetary and ethical theories. This is done by first describing the development of CSR abroad and in Sweden, with a focus on “Den Svenska Modellen”. Second to show the different perspectives of the monetary and ethical approach in connection to the concept of CSR. Thereafter, the theories will be analyzed and discussed solely, in connection to each other and the development of CSR through time.</p><p>The analysis and discussion about the concept of CSR indicates that the monetary and ethical theories can not be considered to have the only impact on the concept of CSR but they have affected each other. Another conclusion is that the corporation's actions can lead to a responsible behavior that would benefit the whole society which the corporation is active in.</p><p> </p>

This paper is focusing on the responsibility corporations have toward society and what role stakeholders play in this responsibility. By providing a historical background of how corporations have used their responsibility toward society, it is clear that corporations have been responsible. Before, this responsibility was focused toward the shareholders of the corporation but with time it changed to include more actors within the society. By focusing on what kind of responsibility the corporation has towards the society it is active in, this paper will explain the notion of a corporation that has a social responsibility in terms of being morally responsibility for its actions. This is why the concentration of the this paper will be on the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The notion of CSR has became more significant with time. In today's society corporations are expected to take more responsibility. A reason for this increased expectations from society on corporations could have to do with the fact that stakeholders have gained greater transparency through technological development, mainly the development of information technology. The aim of this paper will be to show what role CSR plays for a corporation in today’s society and why a corporation should work more with its different stakeholders and not as before with almost solely its shareholders. To be able to conduct this aim, the notion of CSR will be described and put into perspective by the two main theories behind the concept of CSR: the monetary and ethical theories. This is done by first describing the development of CSR abroad and in Sweden, with a focus on “Den Svenska Modellen”. Second to show the different perspectives of the monetary and ethical approach in connection to the concept of CSR. Thereafter, the theories will be analyzed and discussed solely, in connection to each other and the development of CSR through time. The analysis and discussion about the concept of CSR indicates that the monetary and ethical theories can not be considered to have the only impact on the concept of CSR but they have affected each other. Another conclusion is that the corporation's actions can lead to a responsible behavior that would benefit the whole society which the corporation is active in.

Submitted by Rosivalda Pereira (mrs.pereira@ufma.br) on 2017-05-23T21:11:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DionatanSilvaCarvalho.pdf: 8223913 bytes, checksum: 3132ef4489dd3eebcae83ddcc234844a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-23T21:11:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DionatanSilvaCarvalho.pdf: 8223913 bytes, checksum: 3132ef4489dd3eebcae83ddcc234844a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-07 / This work aims overall to study the rural poverty in Maranhão and specific objectives, measure and distinguish the specificities of poverty extreme in rural areas. For this, we sought to initially understand better the ways measuring poverty in major theoretical approaches that deal with this subject, showing the contributions, the differences and the problems that each of the methodologies involve. Given the theoretical framework, we adopted the monetary approach as model for identifying the poor. Based on this, made himself holistic analysis of poverty in the state, comparing the relationship between economic performance and poverty and then made up the interrelations between production structure and rural poverty. As results, saw up that Maranhão has the highest poverty rates in the country. We noted also that there was a big improvement between 2000 and 2010, but this improvement bears little relationship to the state's economic performance. / Este trabalho tem como objetivo geral estudar a pobreza rural no Maranhão e, como objetivos específicos, dimensionar e distinguir as especificidades da pobreza extrema na zona rural. Para isso, buscou-se inicialmente compreender melhor as formas de mensuração da pobreza nas principais abordagens teóricas que tratam deste assunto, mostrando as contribuições, as diferenças e os problemas que cada uma das metodologias envolve. Diante do referencial teórico, adotou-se a abordagem monetária como modelo de identificação dos pobres. Com esta, fez-se uma análise holística da pobreza no Estado, comparando as relações entre desempenho econômico e pobreza e, posteriormente fez-se as inter-relações entre a estrutura produtiva e a pobreza rural. Como resultado, viu-se que o Maranhão apresenta os mais elevados índices de pobreza do país. Constata-se ainda que houve uma grande melhoria entre os anos 2000 e 2010, mas que essa melhoria guarda pouca relação com o desempenho econômico do Estado.

Cette thèse cherche à savoir dans quelle mesure une crise économique peut résulter d'une dimension particulière de la financiarisation : la gouvernance actionnariale. La financiarisation est la structuration inédite de certaines composantes des activités économiques par un système financier libéralisé à partir des années 1970. Parmi les composantes concernées figure la gestion des entreprises. Sa financiarisation consiste à réduire autant que possible les dépenses de production tout en privilégiant l’endettement comme mode de financement. L’objectif est de générer autant de revenus que possible pour l’actionnaire, sous forme de dividendes et de gains en capital. C'est pourquoi une telle gestion est qualifiée de gouvernance actionnariale. Une démarche en quatre étapes est suivie. En premier, la littérature existante est soumise à la critique. Le problème posé est généralement résolu à partir de modèles formalisant des marchés équilibrés, mais la formation de tels marchés est à peine prouvée. Ce biais n'est pas nouveau et affecte la théorie économique dans son ensemble. La résolution peut donc s’appuyer sur un modèle représentant les activités économiques sans référence à des marchés équilibrés. La seconde étape est de construire cette représentation. Cette dernière peut s’organiser autour de la monnaie, c’est-à-dire une approche monétaire des activités économiques. Ces dernières sont saisies à partir des paiements interdépendants rendus possibles par l’utilisation de la monnaie, en tant qu'unité d'expression des paiements et moyen de les effectuer. Les paiements sont mis en relation avec trois composantes : i) le mode d’émission de moyens de paiement, typiquement le crédit bancaire ; ii) le règlement des déficits résultant des paiements (crédits bancaires non totalement remboursés, faute d'avoir enregistré suffisamment de paiements) ; et iii) la modification des paiements d'une période à l'autre par les agents, afin de les ajuster à leurs objectifs et contraintes. Ces modifications produisent une évolution du réseau de paiements formé à chaque période.La troisième étape est de modéliser un réseau de paiements en évolution. Un système d’équations non-linéaires de récurrence détermine chaque paiement parmi une typologie préalablement établi, ainsi que son mode de financement. Le système détermine aussi le règlement des déficits résultant des paiements. Les multiples récurrences produisent l’évolution. Le tout est saisi en faisant abstraction des biens et des phénomènes afférents, conformément à une approche monétaire. La quatrième étape est de mobiliser le modèle pour résoudre le problème. La crise peut être le résultat de l'évolution elle-même. Des agents modifiant leurs paiements peuvent conduire d’autres agents à enregistrer des déficits. Le réseau de paiements peut donc évoluer de manière à ce que des entreprises soient insolvables. Les faillites subséquentes peuvent être en nombre suffisant pour diminuer la production et de l'emploi, d’où la crise économique. Une telle évolution est définie comme non-viable. Savoir si la gouvernance actionnariale est un facteur de crise revient donc à savoir si la gouvernance actionnariale implique une évolution non-viable du réseau de paiements. Des simulations numériques sont effectuées, avec notamment des sous-configurations de paramètres associées à une plus ou moins grande diffusion de la gouvernance actionnariale parmi les entreprises. Le modèle produit le résultat général suivant : soit la gouvernance actionnariale génère une crise, soit elle rapproche de cette situation, soit la crise se produit indépendamment de la gouvernance actionnariale. Ce résultat vaut quel que soit le degré de diffusion de cette gouvernance parmi les entreprises. Ce résultat vaut également en l'absence d'épargne et avec l'endettement des salariés, contrairement aux modèles déjà existants mais sujets au biais conceptuel relatif à la formation des marchés équilibrés. / The aim of this dissertation is to know to what extent an economic crisis can result from a specific dimension of financialization: the search for shareholder value by firms. Financialization is the unprecedented influences of financial systems over some components of the economic activities after the liberalization of such systems since the 1970s. Among the aforesaid components we can find the management of firms. Such management is shaped so that production expenditures are lowered as much as possible while priority is given to debt for financing decisions. The objective is to create as much 'shareholder value' as possible, to wit, to create as much income as possible for shareholders. The dissertation unfolds in four steps. First, a critical survey is made. The problem is generally solved by means of models putting into equations equilibrated markets. However, the convergence to equilibrium is barely proved. This logical inconsistency is not new and affects economic theory as a whole. Thus, solving the problem can be based on a model which conceptualizes the economic activities without referring to equilibrated markets. The second step is to elaborate on such conceptualization. A possibility is to account for the economic activities on the basis of money, thus giving rise to a monetary approach of these activities. The emphasis is put on the interrelated payments made possible by the use of money, the latter being the unit for payments to be expressed and the means through which payments are made. Payments are conceptualized in relation with three components: i) the process that creates means of payment, generally bank credit; ii) the settlement of negative balances (some agents cannot fully repay their debts as they do not benefit from enough payments); and iii) the modification of payments by agents from one period to another, according to their objectives and constraints. These modifications lead the network of payments to evolve over time. The third step is to put into equations an evolving network of payments in order to solve the problem. A system of non-linear recurrence equations determine all payments from a typology elaborated beforehand, as well as the financing of them. The system also determines the settlement of the negatives balances which result from payments. The numerous recurrences give rise to evolution. The whole system abstracts from goods and the related phenomena, in accordance with the monetary approach. The fourth step is to use the model for the problem to be solved. An economic crisis can be the result of the evolution per se. Agents which periodically change their payments can lead other agents to record negative balances. Thus, the network of payments can evolve in such a way that some firms are insolvent. The subsequent bankruptcies can be large enough to decrease production and employment, as in an economic crisis. In that case, the evolution of the network of payments is defined as non-viable. To know if the search for shareholder value leads to an economic crisis thus amounts to know if the search for shareholder value leads to a non-viable evolution of the network of payments. Numerical simulations are made, notably with the configurations of parameters that are associated to a more or less search for shareholder value by firms. The model leads to the following general result: either the search for shareholder value results in an economic crisis, either it moves the economic activities closer to a crisis, either the latter occurs irrespective of the search for shareholder value. This result applies whether management is totally oriented by shareholder value or only a few. This result also applies without savings and with the indebtedness of wage-earners, contrary to the models of the survey; however they fail due to the difficulties to prove the formation of their equilibrated markets.

Esta dissertação faz uma análise da pobreza rural no Brasil a partir de duas abordagens distintas. Uma delas, a mais tradicional, unidimensional, baseada exclusivamente na renda: a abordagem monetária. A outra, de natureza multidimensional, relativamente recente, baseada naquilo que as pessoas são capazes de ser e fazer: Abordagem das Capacitações, de Amartya Kumar Sen. A questão investigada neste trabalho é se as compreensões de pobreza rural fornecidas por cada uma destas abordagens diferem entre si. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD/IBGE), trazendo, além do Brasil de forma agregada, os estados do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) e Rio Grande do Norte (RN). Foram selecionados estes três estados, de regiões diferentes, para captar a heterogeneidade de realidades do país. Subliminar a esta problemática da comparação de abordagens estão duas contribuições específicas desta dissertação: o avanço na discussão sobre o entendimento da pobreza no meio rural e uma contribuição na consolidação da operacionalização da Abordagem das Capacitações a partir de dados secundários. Na parte teórica deste trabalho foram analisados os elementos centrais de cada uma destas abordagens, procurando dar embasamento para as métricas sob as quais se assentam as evidências empíricas de cada uma. A parte metodológica, que apresenta estas métricas, tem especial importância no caso da Abordagem das Capacitações, por se tratar de uma abordagem mais nova e ainda não consolidada. A abordagem monetária se baseia na renda domiciliar per capita, fazendo uso de ferramentas de análise que tratam da distribuição de renda, linhas monetárias de pobreza e de medidas de pobreza. Já a Abordagem das Capacitações analisa três funcionamentos (ser e fazer) específicos: estudo, saúde e mobilidade e condições de moradia. Isto é feito através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas (Análise Fatorial e Análise de Cluster). Os resultados concernentes à abordagem monetária mostram uma combinação de renda média baixa e distribuição de renda consideravelmente assimétrica, o que desenha uma realidade de pobreza rural bastante específica. O RS é o estado que apresenta as melhores condições, e o RN o que apresenta as piores, entre eles estão MG e o Brasil como um todo. Já com relação às evidências empíricas da Abordagem das Capacitações, os resultados não permitem dizer que um estado está em melhores condições do que outro, de forma absoluta. Cada um tem características específicas, uma estrutura multidimensional particular em relação àqueles três funcionamentos. O RS tem melhores indicadores para o funcionamento moradia, por exemplo, enquanto MG tem melhores resultados para educação. Pode-se dizer que cada um tem estruturas de bem-estar diferenciadas, mas não que um seja mais “pobre” do que outro. Esta diferença de resultados entre as abordagens está associada a uma diferença de percepção do fenômeno pobreza. O próprio papel desempenhado pela renda, cabe salientar, é diferente no contexto da Abordagem das Capacitações: sua influência sobre as dimensões estudadas não apresenta um padrão claro. Os resultados empíricos, portanto, são diferentes porque a percepção que se tem do fenômeno é diversa. / This master thesis presents an analysis of the rural poverty in Brazil based on two different approaches. One of them, more traditional, unidimensional, exclusively based on income: the monetary approach. The other one, relatively recent, multidimensional, based on what people are able to do or to be: the Capability Approach, proposed by Amartya Kumar Sen. The question investigated throughout this study is if the comprehensions of rural poverty offered by these two approaches point out in different ways or not. To take it forward, it was used secondary data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD/IBGE). And the study analyzes Brazil, as a whole, and three states: Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) and Rio Grande do Norte (RN). It was selected states from different regions of the country aiming to capture the heterogeneities of realities in Brazil. Underlying to the question of comparing the two approaches are a pair of specific topics in which the present study goes on: an advance on the debate about rural poverty and a contribution for the consolidation of the operationalization of the Capability Approach based on secondary data. The theoretical section of the master thesis analyzes the central elements of each approach, trying to establish the basis on which the empirical metrics are settled. The methodological section presents those metrics and it is especially important in the case of the Capability Approach, because of its peculiarity of being a new approach and not yet consolidated. The monetary approach is based on the household income per capita, and uses analysis tools that count on the income distribution, monetary poverty lines and poverty measures. The Capability Approach, in turn, analyses three different functionings (beings and doings): study, health and mobility, and housing conditions. That analysis is performed through multivariate statistical techniques (Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis). The results concerning the monetary approach point out a combination of low income average and asymmetric income distribution which draw a specific reality of rural poverty. The state of RS presents the best conditions in terms of those monetary indicators, and the state of RN the worse. Between RS and RN are Brazil as a whole and the state of MG. The empirical evidences from the Capability Approach, however, do not allow saying that one state is better off than another one in an absolute way. Each state has specific characteristics, has a particular multidimensional structure regarding those three functionings. The state of RS presents the best indicator in housing conditions, for instance, whereas MG offers the best result in education. It is possible to say that each state has different structures of well-being, but we cannot say that one state is “poorer” than another one. Those differences between the two approaches, in terms of empirical results, are related to a diverse perception of the phenomenon named poverty. Even the role played by income is different in the context of the Capability Approach: its influence over the dimensions investigated does not present any clear pattern. Summarizing, the empirical results are different because the perception of poverty is diverse.

Esta dissertação faz uma análise da pobreza rural no Brasil a partir de duas abordagens distintas. Uma delas, a mais tradicional, unidimensional, baseada exclusivamente na renda: a abordagem monetária. A outra, de natureza multidimensional, relativamente recente, baseada naquilo que as pessoas são capazes de ser e fazer: Abordagem das Capacitações, de Amartya Kumar Sen. A questão investigada neste trabalho é se as compreensões de pobreza rural fornecidas por cada uma destas abordagens diferem entre si. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD/IBGE), trazendo, além do Brasil de forma agregada, os estados do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) e Rio Grande do Norte (RN). Foram selecionados estes três estados, de regiões diferentes, para captar a heterogeneidade de realidades do país. Subliminar a esta problemática da comparação de abordagens estão duas contribuições específicas desta dissertação: o avanço na discussão sobre o entendimento da pobreza no meio rural e uma contribuição na consolidação da operacionalização da Abordagem das Capacitações a partir de dados secundários. Na parte teórica deste trabalho foram analisados os elementos centrais de cada uma destas abordagens, procurando dar embasamento para as métricas sob as quais se assentam as evidências empíricas de cada uma. A parte metodológica, que apresenta estas métricas, tem especial importância no caso da Abordagem das Capacitações, por se tratar de uma abordagem mais nova e ainda não consolidada. A abordagem monetária se baseia na renda domiciliar per capita, fazendo uso de ferramentas de análise que tratam da distribuição de renda, linhas monetárias de pobreza e de medidas de pobreza. Já a Abordagem das Capacitações analisa três funcionamentos (ser e fazer) específicos: estudo, saúde e mobilidade e condições de moradia. Isto é feito através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas (Análise Fatorial e Análise de Cluster). Os resultados concernentes à abordagem monetária mostram uma combinação de renda média baixa e distribuição de renda consideravelmente assimétrica, o que desenha uma realidade de pobreza rural bastante específica. O RS é o estado que apresenta as melhores condições, e o RN o que apresenta as piores, entre eles estão MG e o Brasil como um todo. Já com relação às evidências empíricas da Abordagem das Capacitações, os resultados não permitem dizer que um estado está em melhores condições do que outro, de forma absoluta. Cada um tem características específicas, uma estrutura multidimensional particular em relação àqueles três funcionamentos. O RS tem melhores indicadores para o funcionamento moradia, por exemplo, enquanto MG tem melhores resultados para educação. Pode-se dizer que cada um tem estruturas de bem-estar diferenciadas, mas não que um seja mais “pobre” do que outro. Esta diferença de resultados entre as abordagens está associada a uma diferença de percepção do fenômeno pobreza. O próprio papel desempenhado pela renda, cabe salientar, é diferente no contexto da Abordagem das Capacitações: sua influência sobre as dimensões estudadas não apresenta um padrão claro. Os resultados empíricos, portanto, são diferentes porque a percepção que se tem do fenômeno é diversa. / This master thesis presents an analysis of the rural poverty in Brazil based on two different approaches. One of them, more traditional, unidimensional, exclusively based on income: the monetary approach. The other one, relatively recent, multidimensional, based on what people are able to do or to be: the Capability Approach, proposed by Amartya Kumar Sen. The question investigated throughout this study is if the comprehensions of rural poverty offered by these two approaches point out in different ways or not. To take it forward, it was used secondary data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD/IBGE). And the study analyzes Brazil, as a whole, and three states: Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) and Rio Grande do Norte (RN). It was selected states from different regions of the country aiming to capture the heterogeneities of realities in Brazil. Underlying to the question of comparing the two approaches are a pair of specific topics in which the present study goes on: an advance on the debate about rural poverty and a contribution for the consolidation of the operationalization of the Capability Approach based on secondary data. The theoretical section of the master thesis analyzes the central elements of each approach, trying to establish the basis on which the empirical metrics are settled. The methodological section presents those metrics and it is especially important in the case of the Capability Approach, because of its peculiarity of being a new approach and not yet consolidated. The monetary approach is based on the household income per capita, and uses analysis tools that count on the income distribution, monetary poverty lines and poverty measures. The Capability Approach, in turn, analyses three different functionings (beings and doings): study, health and mobility, and housing conditions. That analysis is performed through multivariate statistical techniques (Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis). The results concerning the monetary approach point out a combination of low income average and asymmetric income distribution which draw a specific reality of rural poverty. The state of RS presents the best conditions in terms of those monetary indicators, and the state of RN the worse. Between RS and RN are Brazil as a whole and the state of MG. The empirical evidences from the Capability Approach, however, do not allow saying that one state is better off than another one in an absolute way. Each state has specific characteristics, has a particular multidimensional structure regarding those three functionings. The state of RS presents the best indicator in housing conditions, for instance, whereas MG offers the best result in education. It is possible to say that each state has different structures of well-being, but we cannot say that one state is “poorer” than another one. Those differences between the two approaches, in terms of empirical results, are related to a diverse perception of the phenomenon named poverty. Even the role played by income is different in the context of the Capability Approach: its influence over the dimensions investigated does not present any clear pattern. Summarizing, the empirical results are different because the perception of poverty is diverse.

Esta dissertação faz uma análise da pobreza rural no Brasil a partir de duas abordagens distintas. Uma delas, a mais tradicional, unidimensional, baseada exclusivamente na renda: a abordagem monetária. A outra, de natureza multidimensional, relativamente recente, baseada naquilo que as pessoas são capazes de ser e fazer: Abordagem das Capacitações, de Amartya Kumar Sen. A questão investigada neste trabalho é se as compreensões de pobreza rural fornecidas por cada uma destas abordagens diferem entre si. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD/IBGE), trazendo, além do Brasil de forma agregada, os estados do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) e Rio Grande do Norte (RN). Foram selecionados estes três estados, de regiões diferentes, para captar a heterogeneidade de realidades do país. Subliminar a esta problemática da comparação de abordagens estão duas contribuições específicas desta dissertação: o avanço na discussão sobre o entendimento da pobreza no meio rural e uma contribuição na consolidação da operacionalização da Abordagem das Capacitações a partir de dados secundários. Na parte teórica deste trabalho foram analisados os elementos centrais de cada uma destas abordagens, procurando dar embasamento para as métricas sob as quais se assentam as evidências empíricas de cada uma. A parte metodológica, que apresenta estas métricas, tem especial importância no caso da Abordagem das Capacitações, por se tratar de uma abordagem mais nova e ainda não consolidada. A abordagem monetária se baseia na renda domiciliar per capita, fazendo uso de ferramentas de análise que tratam da distribuição de renda, linhas monetárias de pobreza e de medidas de pobreza. Já a Abordagem das Capacitações analisa três funcionamentos (ser e fazer) específicos: estudo, saúde e mobilidade e condições de moradia. Isto é feito através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas (Análise Fatorial e Análise de Cluster). Os resultados concernentes à abordagem monetária mostram uma combinação de renda média baixa e distribuição de renda consideravelmente assimétrica, o que desenha uma realidade de pobreza rural bastante específica. O RS é o estado que apresenta as melhores condições, e o RN o que apresenta as piores, entre eles estão MG e o Brasil como um todo. Já com relação às evidências empíricas da Abordagem das Capacitações, os resultados não permitem dizer que um estado está em melhores condições do que outro, de forma absoluta. Cada um tem características específicas, uma estrutura multidimensional particular em relação àqueles três funcionamentos. O RS tem melhores indicadores para o funcionamento moradia, por exemplo, enquanto MG tem melhores resultados para educação. Pode-se dizer que cada um tem estruturas de bem-estar diferenciadas, mas não que um seja mais “pobre” do que outro. Esta diferença de resultados entre as abordagens está associada a uma diferença de percepção do fenômeno pobreza. O próprio papel desempenhado pela renda, cabe salientar, é diferente no contexto da Abordagem das Capacitações: sua influência sobre as dimensões estudadas não apresenta um padrão claro. Os resultados empíricos, portanto, são diferentes porque a percepção que se tem do fenômeno é diversa. / This master thesis presents an analysis of the rural poverty in Brazil based on two different approaches. One of them, more traditional, unidimensional, exclusively based on income: the monetary approach. The other one, relatively recent, multidimensional, based on what people are able to do or to be: the Capability Approach, proposed by Amartya Kumar Sen. The question investigated throughout this study is if the comprehensions of rural poverty offered by these two approaches point out in different ways or not. To take it forward, it was used secondary data from the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD/IBGE). And the study analyzes Brazil, as a whole, and three states: Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Minas Gerais (MG) and Rio Grande do Norte (RN). It was selected states from different regions of the country aiming to capture the heterogeneities of realities in Brazil. Underlying to the question of comparing the two approaches are a pair of specific topics in which the present study goes on: an advance on the debate about rural poverty and a contribution for the consolidation of the operationalization of the Capability Approach based on secondary data. The theoretical section of the master thesis analyzes the central elements of each approach, trying to establish the basis on which the empirical metrics are settled. The methodological section presents those metrics and it is especially important in the case of the Capability Approach, because of its peculiarity of being a new approach and not yet consolidated. The monetary approach is based on the household income per capita, and uses analysis tools that count on the income distribution, monetary poverty lines and poverty measures. The Capability Approach, in turn, analyses three different functionings (beings and doings): study, health and mobility, and housing conditions. That analysis is performed through multivariate statistical techniques (Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis). The results concerning the monetary approach point out a combination of low income average and asymmetric income distribution which draw a specific reality of rural poverty. The state of RS presents the best conditions in terms of those monetary indicators, and the state of RN the worse. Between RS and RN are Brazil as a whole and the state of MG. The empirical evidences from the Capability Approach, however, do not allow saying that one state is better off than another one in an absolute way. Each state has specific characteristics, has a particular multidimensional structure regarding those three functionings. The state of RS presents the best indicator in housing conditions, for instance, whereas MG offers the best result in education. It is possible to say that each state has different structures of well-being, but we cannot say that one state is “poorer” than another one. Those differences between the two approaches, in terms of empirical results, are related to a diverse perception of the phenomenon named poverty. Even the role played by income is different in the context of the Capability Approach: its influence over the dimensions investigated does not present any clear pattern. Summarizing, the empirical results are different because the perception of poverty is diverse.

Cette thèse propose quatre contributions à l'étude de la politique monétaire dans le contexte de l'économie vietnamienne, depuis 1995-1996 jusqu’à maintenant.Le premier chapitre donne aperçu de l'économie vietnamienne et sa politique monétaire. Il s’agit d’un chapitre qui problématise les questions traitées économétriquement dans le reste de la thèse.Chapitre 2 montrent qu'il y a une relation à long terme entre le taux de change du marché noir et ses variables monétaires. Le taux de change officiel, l’écart de la masse monétaire et de taux d'intérêt intérieur ont des effets positifs significatifs sur le taux de change du marché noir tandis que la production intérieure réelle et le taux d'intérêt à l'étranger ont un impact négatif significatif sur cet indice. Chapitre 3 fournissent de fortes preuves relatives à la relation à long terme entre taux de change et ses fondamentaux monétaires relatifs. Bien que les signes des taux d'intérêt estimés soient ambigu, les coefficients estimés de la monnaie et du rendement sont compatibles avec toutes les variantes traditionnelles du modèle monétaire de la détermination du taux de change. Finalement, nous constatons que le pass-through du taux de change sur l'inflation est fort et rapide, et que le taux de change a un effet positif significatif sur l'inflation. La masse monétaire joue un rôle important dans la détermination de l'inflation alors que le taux d'intérêt ne semble pas avoir un impact significatif sur l'inflation. En outre, le prix du pétrole l’influence considérablement. Un choc de taux d’intérêts des États-Unis joue un rôle insignifiant dans l’explication de la variabilité des variables macroéconomiques domestiques. / This dissertation proposes four contributions to the study of monetary policy in the context of Vietnamese economy from 1995-96 onwards. The first chapter provides an overview of Vietnamese economy and its monetary policy. It provides some issues that are resolved econometrically in the rest of the thesis.The second chapter investigates the black market exchange rate determination. We find that there is a long-run relationship between black market exchange rate and its relative monetary variables. Official exchange rate, money supply differential and domestic interest rate have significant positive effects on black market exchange rate while domestic real output and foreign interest rate have meaningful negative impact on black market exchange rate.The third chapter examines how well versions of monetary models explain the VND/U.S dollar exchange rate. Estimates provide strong evidences of long-run relationship between exchange rate and its relative monetary fundamentals. Although the signs of estimated interest rates are mixed, estimated coefficients of money and output are consistent with any traditional variant of monetary model of exchange rate determination. Eventually, we find that the exchange rate pass-through to inflation is high and rapid, and exchange rate has a significant positive effect of exchange rate on inflation. Estimates also reveal that money supply plays a significant role in shaping inflation while interest rate does not seem to have a meaningful impact on inflation. In addition, oil price also has significant impact on inflation. U.S interest rate shock plays an insignificant role in explaining the variability of domestic macro variables.