The United Nations has created an abundance of human rights treaties and declarations over the decades to promote a culture of human rights and to set normative provisions of human rights standards for all states to follow. This broad effort is supplemented by the work of regional human rights organisations, which aim to ensure implementation of these fundamental precepts, and to enhance its work to suit its regional circumstances, offering a protective source of jurisprudence at the domestic level. One such organisation, which this thesis examines, is the Arab League. In critically examining the history and the work of the Arab League, the study highlights the deficiencies in promoting and protecting human rights. In this context, this thesis critically examines the Arab League’s development and relationship with the wider international human rights apparatus. It provides a comprehensive overview of the system of the United Nations and its specialised organs that with the resolutions adopted helped the League establish its own regional human rights systems. It traces the history of the application of international human rights discourse in the Arab world. Accordingly, an attempt is made to conceptualise the universality of human rights in the region and the impact of the Shariah discourse. It then attempts to provide an analytic description of the Arab League and background to the region and undertakes an in-depth critical analysis of the structure of the League and assesses its impact in the region, all of which may have incentives to the League’s attempt to institutionalise, promote and protect human rights. The study considers the efforts made by the Arab Permanent Commission on Human Rights and its specialised agencies that ultimately led to the adoption of the Arab Charter on Human Rights (1994). After examining the limitations of the Commission and its work, the scope and structure of the revised Arab Charter on Human Rights (2004) is critically analysed. The study also examines and evaluates the legislative framework of the Arab Human Rights Committee (the Charter’s enforcement mechanism as per Art.45). A case study of the Syrian Arab Republic and the analysis of continuing violations of human rights in the region illustrate the deficiencies and limitations of the Arab League as a regional organisation.

A presente pesquisa analisa as práticas de governança corporativa indicadas aos seguintes mecanismos de monitoramento: (a) o conselho fiscal; (b) a auditoria externa e (c) a auditoria interna. Buscou-se verificar quão próximas as cooperativas agropecuárias estão do que é indicado pelos códigos de melhores práticas de governança. Utiliza-se como fundamentação teórica a perspectiva da firma como um conjunto de contratos em um contexto no qual pode existir delegação de parte do poder de controle e decisão dos ativos. Assim, analisa-se teoricamente as motivações para a adoção de estruturas de governança corporativa que desempenhem funções de monitoramento da gestão. Para tanto, considera-se a condição de incompletude dos contratos, os pressupostos comportamentais da racionalidade limitada e oportunismo dos agentes econômicos e o processo decisório em um contexto de propriedade coletiva. Nas análises, utilizou-se primeiramente as cooperativas agropecuárias constantes no banco de dados da FIPECAFI Melhores e Maiores entre os anos de 2005 e 2009. A amostra foi composta por 72 cooperativas para o período de cinco anos. Verifica-se que as empresas de auditoria externa que compõem o grupo das maiores apresentam menor representatividade no mercado de auditoria independente para cooperativas comparadas às menores empresas de auditoria constantes no banco de dados. Ainda, aplicou-se um questionário fundamentado nos Códigos de Melhores Práticas de Governança Corporativa do IBGC (Instituto Brasileiro de Governança Cooperativa) e da OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), sendo que o instrumento apresenta Alfa de Cronbach de 0,77. Verifica-se que as práticas e mecanismos de governança indicados em códigos de governança corporativa, apresentam níveis de adoção consideravelmente menores comparados àqueles presentes em lei, não sendo possível verificar tendência para adoção de práticas que não são regulamentadas na maior parte das cooperativas agropecuárias estudadas. Apesar de constatada maior adoção de práticas regulamentadas, os estudos de caso realizados em duas cooperativas comuns à amostra do banco de dados da FIPECAFI e do questionário apontam a tendência de cooperativas maiores implementarem práticas de governança corporativa não regulamentadas. / This research examines the corporate governance practices related to the following monitoring mechanisms: (a) the fiscal board, (b) the external audit and (c) the internal audit. The aim is to determine how close the agricultural cooperatives are from the recommended by codes of best corporate governance practices. It is used as the theoretical perspective that the firm is a set of contracts in a context where it is possible the delegation of part of power to the control of assets. Its analyzed theoretically the reasons to adopt corporate governance practices that perform monitoring functions of management. For that, was considered the condition of incompleteness of contracts, the behavioral assumptions of bounded rationality and opportunism of economic agents and the decision-making in the context of collective proprietorship. In the analysis was primarily used the agricultural cooperatives contained in the database of FIPECAFI Better and Bigger in the years 2005 to 2009. The sample was composed of 72 cooperatives for the period of five years. It appears that the external audit firms of Bigger group are less representative in the independent auditors for cooperatives market if compared to smaller audit firms listed in the database. A questionnaire, based on Codes of Best Practice for Corporate Governance IBGC (Brazilian Institute of Cooperative) and OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), was applied and the instrument has Cronbachs Alpha of 0, 77. It is verified that corporate governance practices and mechanisms that are indicated in codes, have lower level of adoption compared to those regulated by law. It was not possible to verify the tendency to adopt corporate governance practices indicated in codes in most agricultural cooperatives studied. Despite most part of corporate governance practices verified by the questionnaires application are regulated by law, case studies realized in two cooperatives that make part of questionnaire and FIPECAFI database, point to the tendency of large cooperatives implement not regulated corporate governance practices.

A presente pesquisa analisa as práticas de governança corporativa indicadas aos seguintes mecanismos de monitoramento: (a) o conselho fiscal; (b) a auditoria externa e (c) a auditoria interna. Buscou-se verificar quão próximas as cooperativas agropecuárias estão do que é indicado pelos códigos de melhores práticas de governança. Utiliza-se como fundamentação teórica a perspectiva da firma como um conjunto de contratos em um contexto no qual pode existir delegação de parte do poder de controle e decisão dos ativos. Assim, analisa-se teoricamente as motivações para a adoção de estruturas de governança corporativa que desempenhem funções de monitoramento da gestão. Para tanto, considera-se a condição de incompletude dos contratos, os pressupostos comportamentais da racionalidade limitada e oportunismo dos agentes econômicos e o processo decisório em um contexto de propriedade coletiva. Nas análises, utilizou-se primeiramente as cooperativas agropecuárias constantes no banco de dados da FIPECAFI Melhores e Maiores entre os anos de 2005 e 2009. A amostra foi composta por 72 cooperativas para o período de cinco anos. Verifica-se que as empresas de auditoria externa que compõem o grupo das maiores apresentam menor representatividade no mercado de auditoria independente para cooperativas comparadas às menores empresas de auditoria constantes no banco de dados. Ainda, aplicou-se um questionário fundamentado nos Códigos de Melhores Práticas de Governança Corporativa do IBGC (Instituto Brasileiro de Governança Cooperativa) e da OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), sendo que o instrumento apresenta Alfa de Cronbach de 0,77. Verifica-se que as práticas e mecanismos de governança indicados em códigos de governança corporativa, apresentam níveis de adoção consideravelmente menores comparados àqueles presentes em lei, não sendo possível verificar tendência para adoção de práticas que não são regulamentadas na maior parte das cooperativas agropecuárias estudadas. Apesar de constatada maior adoção de práticas regulamentadas, os estudos de caso realizados em duas cooperativas comuns à amostra do banco de dados da FIPECAFI e do questionário apontam a tendência de cooperativas maiores implementarem práticas de governança corporativa não regulamentadas. / This research examines the corporate governance practices related to the following monitoring mechanisms: (a) the fiscal board, (b) the external audit and (c) the internal audit. The aim is to determine how close the agricultural cooperatives are from the recommended by codes of best corporate governance practices. It is used as the theoretical perspective that the firm is a set of contracts in a context where it is possible the delegation of part of power to the control of assets. Its analyzed theoretically the reasons to adopt corporate governance practices that perform monitoring functions of management. For that, was considered the condition of incompleteness of contracts, the behavioral assumptions of bounded rationality and opportunism of economic agents and the decision-making in the context of collective proprietorship. In the analysis was primarily used the agricultural cooperatives contained in the database of FIPECAFI Better and Bigger in the years 2005 to 2009. The sample was composed of 72 cooperatives for the period of five years. It appears that the external audit firms of Bigger group are less representative in the independent auditors for cooperatives market if compared to smaller audit firms listed in the database. A questionnaire, based on Codes of Best Practice for Corporate Governance IBGC (Brazilian Institute of Cooperative) and OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), was applied and the instrument has Cronbachs Alpha of 0, 77. It is verified that corporate governance practices and mechanisms that are indicated in codes, have lower level of adoption compared to those regulated by law. It was not possible to verify the tendency to adopt corporate governance practices indicated in codes in most agricultural cooperatives studied. Despite most part of corporate governance practices verified by the questionnaires application are regulated by law, case studies realized in two cooperatives that make part of questionnaire and FIPECAFI database, point to the tendency of large cooperatives implement not regulated corporate governance practices.

Despite several strides made, governance has remained a foundational issue to be addressed in the struggle for human rights and inclusive development in Africa. Almost two decades into existence, it has become imperatively necessary to evaluate the success of this struggle through Africa’s monitoring tool - the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM). This work examines the progress attained in the context of Ghana, which has been acclaimed as a leading democracy in Africa and was the first country to be reviewed. Largely through doctrinal research, data was obtained from online sources and visits to key institutions in Ghana including its National APRM (NAPRM) Secretariat. The findings of this work reveal a higher success level in compliance with legal and policy adjustments, although sometimes instituted at a very slow pace. Yet attaining the anticipated human rights impact has remained a challenge. The lack of Ghana’s political will and poor funding as well as poor responsiveness from the APRM international Secretariat have highly impeded the work of Ghana’s NAPRM; including its continuous publication of Program of Action (POA) reports. It has thus mainly resorted to domestic District Governance Assessments (DGAs) which have in themselves not also been regular. The absence of political will has also been the primary obstacle to a subsequent review, and only recently has Ghana started plans to undergo a Targeted Review on specific domestic issues. This attitude has for several decades similarly been transposed into the country’s state reporting obligations under other African human rights monitoring systems, hence affecting their ability to directly impact domestic change in comparison to the APRM. The findings of this work demonstrate the need to strengthen state responsiveness to treaty monitoring obligations, as well as the workings of the APRM in collaboration with other African monitoring mechanisms. / Mini Dissertation (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) --University of Pretoria, 2021. / European Union / Global Campus of Human Rights / Royal Norwegian Embassy in Pretoria, South Africa / Centre for Human Rights / LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa) / Unrestricted

La réparation en droit international public vise à remédier aux conséquences d’un fait internationalement illicite. Aujourd’hui, l’obligation de réparer intégralement les préjudices est un principe bien établi dans différents domaines du droit international et devant les juridictions judiciaires internationales. La notion de réparation a évolué avec le temps et a connu un tournant majeur avec la reconnaissance du statut de l’individu bénéficiaire et débiteur de l’obligation de réparer. Par ailleurs, la réparation n’est pas seulement la modalité prononcée en tant que telle, mais elle consiste aussi et surtout dans la mise en oeuvre de cette modalité. La surveillance de l’exécution des décisions de réparation est ainsi une des clés de l’effectivité de cette dernière. Sur ce point, le soutien des Etats est d’autant plus incontournable que les juridictions internationales présentent une limite essentielle : l’absence de force contraignante pour faire exécuter leur décision. Par ailleurs, l’accent doit être mis sur le rôle d’entités non étatiques dans le processus de réparation, notamment celui de la société civile. Il est intéressant de voir comment s’articule la pratique actuelle de la réparation devant différentes juridictions internationales en tenant compte de tous ces facteurs. Il convient aussi de noter que malgré un contexte de multiplication de juridictions internationales, il reste des défis complexes dans cette matière, comme par exemple celui de la réparation des situations impliquant des enfants soldats à la fois auteurs et victimes de violations du droit international. Par leurs mesures de réparation, les juridictions internationales contribuent au respect de la légalité internationale. / The requirement to fully repair a damage is a well-established principle in different areas of international law. International judicial courts are particularly called upon to deal with this issue. The concept of remedy has evolved over time. This concept has reached a major turning point with the recognition of the status of the individual, beneficiary and debtor of the obligation to repair. Its terms are not the same depending on the international court in which it is contemplated and reparation is not only the modality pronounced as such, but it is also and especially the implementation of this modality. Monitoring the performance of reparation decisions is thus a key to the effectiveness of the latter. On this point, state support is even more essential that the international courts have an important limitation: the lack of binding force to enforce their decision. Moreover, the role of non-state entities should not be underestimated in the reparation process, especially that of civil society. It is interesting to see how the current practice of reparation before various international tribunals is articulated, considering all these factors. It should also be noted that despite a context of multiplication of international courts, it complex challenges remain in this area. The child soldier issue, both perpetrator and victim of violations of international law is particularly eloquent. With their remedies, international courts contribute to the respect of international legality.

La présente recherche sur l'efficacité du système international des droits de l'Homme consiste à analyser les mécanismes de suivi et de surveillance des Nations Unies en matière des droits de l’Homme. L’impacte de ce système sur le traitement des femmes démontre que les institutions de contrôle et de promotion des droits de l’Homme de l'ONU ne parviennent pas à protéger pleinement les femmes contre ces mesures discriminatoires.Il résulte de cette analyse que le système international de protection des droits des femmes joue un rôle limité dans l’éradication de la discrimination à l’encontre des femmes. Le pouvoir restreint des comités de l'ONU dans le processus de rapports, de suivi et de contrôle constitue la principale raison de son inefficacité. Les comités n'ont pas de force d’opposition ni de pouvoir d’exécution. Les descriptions faites de la situation des femmes dans les rapports des rapporteurs spéciaux de l'ONU et dans les recommandations des comités ne permettent pas d’améliorer concrètement le statut des femmes. En outre, l’incapacité de l'ONU à imposer aux pays des mesures visant à faire respecter ses obligations relatives aux droits des femmes souligne la vulnérabilité structurelle du système international de protection des droits de l’Homme.Par conséquent, le système actuel de contrôle de l'ONU doit subir des modifications. Il serait opportun d'envisager la possibilité d'instaurer de tribunaux internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’Homme pour les États membres de culture commune, de croyances similaires et géographiquement proches. La compétence d’un tribunal international rendant des décisions contraignantes serait ainsi reconnue. / The present research on the effectiveness of the international Human Rights system consists of analyzing United Nations monitoring and surveillance mechanisms in the field of Human Rights. Their impact on the treatment of women demonstrates that the UN human rights monitoring and promotion institutions fail to fully protect women against discriminatory measures.As a result, the international system for the protection of women's rights plays a limited role in eradicating discrimination against women. The limited power of UN committees in the reporting, monitoring and control process is the main reason for its ineffectiveness. Committees have no opposition or enforcement powers.Simply reporting on women’s situation in the UN special rapporteurs and in the recommendations of the committees are insufficient to significantly improve the status of women. The inability of the UN to impose the measures needed to enforce its obligations relating to women's rights. The ineffectiveness of the UN’s enforcement of the measures needed related to women’s rights underlines the structural vulnerability of the international system for the protection of Human Rights.The current system of UN control must be modified. It would be appropriate to consider the possibility of establishing international Human Rights tribunals for Member States, which share a common culture with similar beliefs and are also close geographically. The jurisdiction of an international tribunal rendering binding decisions would thus be recognized.

"In the past 40 years these various procedures and outputs of the United Nations Human Rights Treaty System (UNHRTS) have gradually become sophisticated, developed and strengthened. It has made contributions to the promotion and protection of human rights. Despite its achievements, however, it also faces serious challenges and weaknesses, which induces some insider commentators to evaluate it as 'a system in crisis' and to criticise the whole system as one that urgently needs 'a complete overhaul'. From time to time, several proposals were made to improve the situation. However, the underlying problems persisted. Thus further and radical calls for re-organisation of the monitoring mechanism of the UNHRTS into a Unified and Standing Treaty Monitoring Body (USTMB) was made very recently. A further call for consolidation was made more explicit subsequently. In March 2006 the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) has issued a Concept Paper proposing to consolidate the current treaty monitoring bodies (TMBs) into a USTMB in an attempt to address the persistent problems the UNHTRS monitoring mechanism has been facing. A proposal regarded as too radical by many insiders of the UNHRTS. In view of the serious weaknesses of the UNHRTS monitoring mechanism, the initiated reform is a positive step. However, in seeking to introduce reform, and particularly within the UNHRTS, great caution is important not to throw the baby with water in the reform process. There is real concern about squandering, in the name of reform, the progress achieved over the last decades. In order to introduce an effective reform, it is important to be aware of [what] has worked and what has not, and make strategic choices based on these insights. In view of the proposed USTMB as a solution to the weakness of the system, balancing the reform initiative so that it will inherit the positive legacies while redressing the weakness is, therefore, a major contemporary concern." -- Introduction. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2006. / Prepared under the supervision of Mr. E.Y. Benneh at the Faculty of Law, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM