The objects with which the hand interacts with may significantly change the dynamics of the arm. How does the brain adapt control of arm movements to this new dynamic? We show that adaptation is via composition of a model of the task's dynamics. By exploring generalization capabilities of this adaptation we infer some of the properties of the computational elements with which the brain formed this model: the elements have broad receptive fields and encode the learned dynamics as a map structured in an intrinsic coordinate system closely related to the geometry of the skeletomusculature. The low--level nature of these elements suggests that they may represent asset of primitives with which a movement is represented in the CNS.

In their challenge-point framework (CPF) Guadagnoli and Lee’s (2004) argue that learning is maximized when a person faces an optimal level of challenge during practice. It is suggested that challenge level can be manipulated through the combination of different practice variables. The purpose of this study was to investigate how practice schedule and self-controlled feedback frequency manipulations affect performance and learning of motor skills. Participants (n=96) attempted to learn three versions of a key-pressing task. The task consisted of pressing five computer keys in specified sequences in a goal criterion time. Participants were assigned to either a blocked practice schedule with self-controlled feedback (BLK-SC), a random practice schedule with self-controlled feedback (RND-SC), a blocked practice schedule with yoked feedback (BLK-YK), a random practice schedule with yoked feedback (RND-YK), a blocked practice schedule and 100 percent feedback (BLK-100), or a random practice schedule with 100 percent feedback (RND-100). Participants in the blocked conditions practiced 30 trials of each task according to a blocked practice schedule. Participants in the random conditions practiced 30 trial of each task according to a random practice schedule. Participants in the self-controlled feedback condition were allowed to choose whether or not to receive feedback on each trial. Yoked participants had their feedback schedule matched to a participant with similar characteristics in the self-control condition. Participants in the 100% feedback condition received feedback after every trial. Participants were also asked to complete the NASA Task Load Index (Hart & Staveland, 1988) and an adapted Perceived Competence for Learning scale (adapted from Williams & Deci, 1996) after the completion of the 5th and 90th trial. After 24 hr participants performed a retention test. The results indicated no difference between groups during retention or for the NASA-TLX and PCL scores. The feedback frequency analysis indicated no differences between BLK-SC and RND-SC groups. In general, the findings of the present study show that the effects of practice schedule conditions can be offset by self-controlled feedback manipulations. They also suggest that a number of different combinations of practice schedules and feedback frequencies can lead to similar challenge levels.

Altered afferent input resulting from neck joint dysfunction has become a growing area of study. Cervical spine manipulation, specifically in individuals with subclinical neck pain (SNCP); induces neurological changes, suggesting it has a positive neuromodulatory effect on brain processing. The effects of manipulation on motor learning in individuals with SCNP have not been investigated until now. Studies in this thesis sought to develop and investigate a novel motor training task to be coupled with cervical spine manipulation to investigate its effects on individual’s ability to process new task information. The studies revealed significant changes in neural activity specific to the cerebellum and sensorimotor integration following a complex motor training task as compared to a simple repetitive task, suggesting that those specific regions are involved in processing of more complex motor skill learning tasks. This novel task was then coupled with manipulation which revealed significant activation increases in cortical and decreases in subcortical brain regions following manipulation. Regions specific to sensorimotor integration (SMI) showed increased activation in both the manipulation and passive head movement control groups, corroborating with the results from the first study. The use of a complex motor training task is a useful tool for determining intervention effects on neural processing in individuals with SCNP. / UOIT

Experience drives changes in gene expression that mold and reorganize neuronal circuits. In response to neuronal activity, the transcription factor CREB binds to a regulatory site on Bdnf promoter IV to modulate BDNF protein levels. CREB and BDNF are extensively implicated in animal behaviour, but the role of the interaction between these proteins has not been studied. I used transgenic mice carrying mutations at the CREB binding site of Bdnf promoter IV (CREmKI mutation) to specifically disrupt this interaction. F1 (N = 52) and F2 (N = 69) mice underwent a battery of behavioural tests. All mice showed normal motor learning and spatial memory. Critically, F1 mutants showed impaired auditory fear memory, while F2 mutants showed heightened anxiety. I suspect that differences in Bdnf expression and compensatory effects contributed to discrepancies between the two generations. My findings highlight the relevance of BDNF expression levels for memory- and anxiety-related behaviours.

Experience drives changes in gene expression that mold and reorganize neuronal circuits. In response to neuronal activity, the transcription factor CREB binds to a regulatory site on Bdnf promoter IV to modulate BDNF protein levels. CREB and BDNF are extensively implicated in animal behaviour, but the role of the interaction between these proteins has not been studied. I used transgenic mice carrying mutations at the CREB binding site of Bdnf promoter IV (CREmKI mutation) to specifically disrupt this interaction. F1 (N = 52) and F2 (N = 69) mice underwent a battery of behavioural tests. All mice showed normal motor learning and spatial memory. Critically, F1 mutants showed impaired auditory fear memory, while F2 mutants showed heightened anxiety. I suspect that differences in Bdnf expression and compensatory effects contributed to discrepancies between the two generations. My findings highlight the relevance of BDNF expression levels for memory- and anxiety-related behaviours.

The purpose of this study was twofold. First, to determine if planned interventions could increase untrained undergraduate students' use of positive and specific skill feedback while a teaching fundamental motor skill to children who are disabled. Second, to qualitatively assess the effect of specific verbal feedback on student motor performance. Six undergraduate students enrolled in the Adapted Physical Activity and Lab class at Oregon State University served as teachers for 6 children who were classified as having a mild to moderate disability. Teachers were individually videotaped teaching the same fundamental motor skill each week for 14 weeks in the actual clinic setting. Week 4 teachers were sequentially introduced to the intervention package which included: (a) defining specific skill feedback and discussing its role in skill development, (b) a single viewing of a master teacher videotape, (c) verbally and physically reviewing critical elements of skill being taught, and (d) reviewing teacher feedback and student motor performance each lesson. A variation of the single subject, multiple baseline design across subjects was used to assess the effect of the intervention package on teacher feedback and student motor performance. Single subject data analysis techniques indicated untrained teachers were already using corrective specific feedback while the intervention package developed successfully increased their use of positive specific skill feedback. In addition, evidence suggests a positive relationship between teachers' use of specific skill feedback and student motor performance. Based on these findings, it appears specific verbal feedback behavior of untrained volunteer teachers can be increased as a result of the intervention package developed. It is recommended that future studies replicate this study with a larger number of teachers/students and over a longer period of time. / Graduation date: 1992

The purpose of this thesis was to examine the capacity for acquisition and retention of practice-related improvements in compensatory posture control and the nature of postural motor learning among healthy young and older adults repeatedly exposed to continuous surface motion via a translating platform. Although much research has been conducted to examine the strategies adopted by the central nervous system to control posture in response to external perturbations, the learning capabilities of this system have remained relatively unexplored. Many of the studies that have explored practice-related changes in balance performance have focused on short-term adaptations to highly predictable stimuli. Borrowing from implicit sequence learning paradigms, we developed two experimental protocols to examine postural motor learning for a compensatory balance task in an environment with limited predictability. Applying key principles of motor learning to our experimental design including retention intervals and a transfer task enabled us to draw conclusions about the permanency and specificity of the observed changes. Our investigations revealed practice-related changes in the motor organization of posture control. In young adults, a shift in the complexity of the control strategy occurred which lead to improvements in spatial and temporal control of the COM. In contrast, a majority of older adults persisted with a simplified control strategy which restricted improvements in COM control. Importantly, despite control strategy differences, the two groups showed comparable rates of improvement in almost all outcome measures including measures of trunk stability and temporal COM control. Longer-term retention of behavioural changes provided evidence for learning in young adults. Similar maintenance of improvements was observed for some outcome measures in older adults. Where significant losses in performance occurred in this group, retention was evident in the rapid reacquisition of performance to the level of proficiency achieved in original practice. Based on these results, we concluded that age affected the adapted control strategy but not the capacity for postural motor learning. Further, regardless of age or protocol, the pattern of postural perturbations did not influence acquisition of a strategy of stability and thus, we concluded that postural motor learning under the current conditions was non-specific, that is, it did not involve sequence-specific learning. These results provide important insight into the generalized nature of compensatory postural motor learning and subsequently, into the potential for positive transfer of balance skill to other balance tasks.

The purpose of this thesis was to examine the capacity for acquisition and retention of practice-related improvements in compensatory posture control and the nature of postural motor learning among healthy young and older adults repeatedly exposed to continuous surface motion via a translating platform. Although much research has been conducted to examine the strategies adopted by the central nervous system to control posture in response to external perturbations, the learning capabilities of this system have remained relatively unexplored. Many of the studies that have explored practice-related changes in balance performance have focused on short-term adaptations to highly predictable stimuli. Borrowing from implicit sequence learning paradigms, we developed two experimental protocols to examine postural motor learning for a compensatory balance task in an environment with limited predictability. Applying key principles of motor learning to our experimental design including retention intervals and a transfer task enabled us to draw conclusions about the permanency and specificity of the observed changes. Our investigations revealed practice-related changes in the motor organization of posture control. In young adults, a shift in the complexity of the control strategy occurred which lead to improvements in spatial and temporal control of the COM. In contrast, a majority of older adults persisted with a simplified control strategy which restricted improvements in COM control. Importantly, despite control strategy differences, the two groups showed comparable rates of improvement in almost all outcome measures including measures of trunk stability and temporal COM control. Longer-term retention of behavioural changes provided evidence for learning in young adults. Similar maintenance of improvements was observed for some outcome measures in older adults. Where significant losses in performance occurred in this group, retention was evident in the rapid reacquisition of performance to the level of proficiency achieved in original practice. Based on these results, we concluded that age affected the adapted control strategy but not the capacity for postural motor learning. Further, regardless of age or protocol, the pattern of postural perturbations did not influence acquisition of a strategy of stability and thus, we concluded that postural motor learning under the current conditions was non-specific, that is, it did not involve sequence-specific learning. These results provide important insight into the generalized nature of compensatory postural motor learning and subsequently, into the potential for positive transfer of balance skill to other balance tasks.

I den här studien undersöks sambandet mellan motorik och lärande. Syftet är att teoretiskt och empiriskt få ökad förståelse för hur elevers motoriska utveckling påverkar lärande. Studien utförs med hjälp av litteraturstudie och lärarintervjuer. Mina frågeställningar är:Hur utvecklar barn sin motorik? Vad betyder motorik för lärandet? Hur arbetar förskolelärare och klasslärare med motorik? Lärare har en viktig uppgift att arbeta med motorik både i förskolan och i skolan för att barnen ska utveckla sin motorik. I resultatanalysen jämförs lärarnas intervjusvar för att hitta det gemensamma och generella. I resultatet framgår det att det finns samband mellan motorik och inlärning då perception har en viktig del. Lärarna använder sig av motorik både i undervisningen och som avbrott i undervisningen. Den motoriska utvecklingen bidrar t.ex. till bättre koncentrationsförmåga, balans och kroppsuppfattning vilka har betydelse för lärande. Genom att barnen får röra på sig utvecklar de sin motorik, då naturen är en stimulerande miljö. En slutsats är att barn behöver röra sig för att underlätta lärandet. Däremot krävs det mer kompetens hos lärare för att se det viktiga med motoriken.

We propose a developmental framework that enables the robot to learn affordances through interaction with the environment in an unsupervised way and to use these affordances at different levels of robot control, ranging from reactive response to planning. Inspired from Developmental Psychology, the robot&rsquo / s discovery of action possibilities is realized in two sequential phases. In the first phase, the robot that initially possesses a limited number of basic actions and reflexes discovers new behavior primitives by exercising these actions and by monitoring the changes created in its initially crude perception system. In the second phase, the robot explores a more complicated environment by executing the discovered behavior primitives and using more advanced perception to learn further action possibilities. For this purpose, first, the robot discovers commonalities in action-effect experiences by finding effect categories, and then builds predictors for each behavior to map object features and behavior parameters into effect categories. After learning affordances through self-interaction and self-observation, the robot can make plans to achieve desired goals, emulate end states of demonstrated actions, monitor the plan execution and take corrective actions using the perceptual structures employed or discovered during learning. Mobile and manipulator robots were used to realize the proposed framework. Similar to infants, these robots were able to form behavior repertoires, learn affordances, and gain prediction capabilities. The learned affordances were shown to be relative to the robots, provide perceptual economy and encode general relations. Additionally, the affordance-based planning ability was verified in various tasks such as table cleaning and object transportation.