L’inflammation est un procédé complexe qui vise l’élimination de l’agent causal de dommages tissulaires en vue de faciliter la réparation du tissu affecté. La persistance de l’agent causal ou l’incapacité à résoudre l’inflammation mène à un dérèglement homéostatique chronique qui peut avoir une incidence sur la morbidité et la mortalité. L’athérosclérose est une condition inflammatoire chronique des vaisseaux sanguins dont l’origine est multifactorielle. L’hypertension et l’état infectieux représentent respectivement des facteurs de risque classiques et émergents du développement de cette maladie. Les fondements initiaux de l’inflammation font intervenir l’immunité innée, la première ligne de défense dont disposent les cellules pour répondre à un signal de danger. Le but de cette thèse est d’examiner le rôle pro-inflammatoire d’une famille de kinases essentielles à l’immunité innée, soit celle des kinases de IkappaB (IKK) et des kinases IKK-related. Les kinases IKKalpha et IKKbeta forment le complexe IKK avec la molécule adaptatrice NEMO/IKKgamma. Ce complexe est chargé d’effectuer la phosphorylation de l’inhibiteur de NF-kappaB, IkappaBalpha, ce qui mène à sa dégradation et à la libération du facteur de transcription NF-kappaB. Nous montrons que le peptide vasoactif angiotensine II (AngII) induit l’activité phosphotransférase d’IKKbeta dans les VSMC par immunoprécipitation de NEMO puis essai kinase in vitro. Grâce à une approche ARN interférence (ARNi) dirigée contre IKK, nous montrons que cette kinase est responsable de la phosphorylation de p65/RelA. Nous montrons que le mécanisme d’induction de NF-kappaB par l’AngII est atypique, puisqu’il ne module pas IkappaBalpha, et montrons à l’aide d’inhibiteurs pharmacologiques que l’activation de p65 est indépendante des voies MEK-ERK-RSK, PI3K et de la transactivation du récepteur de l’EGF. Les kinases IKK-related Tank-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) et IKK-i sont quant à elles principalement activées suite à une infection bactérienne ou virale. Ces kinases phosphorylent directement le facteur de transcription interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3. Nous montrons que le cytomégalovirus humain, un pathogène associé à l’athérosclérose, a la capacité d’induire l’activation de TBK1 dans les VSMC. L’usage d’ARNi dirigé contre TBK1 et IKKi montre que les 2 kinases sont impliquées dans l’activation d’IRF-3. De plus, nous montrons à l’aide d’une lignée de VSMC exprimant une version dominante négative d’IRF-3 que ce dernier est essentiel à la synthèse des chimiokines RANTES et IP-10, tel qu’analysé par RT-PCR. Par ailleurs, il a récemment été montré que les kinases IKK-related étaient étroitement liées à la transformation oncogénique, et que TBK1 était pro-angiogénique. Or, l’angiogenèse est le plus souvent modulée par la réponse hypoxique qui est d’ailleurs commune à la majorité des processus inflammatoires. Le facteur de transcription hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1 module l’angiogenèse, l’inflammation et la survie cellulaire. Nous montrons à l’aide de cellules Tbk1 et Ikbke -/- et d’une approche lentivirale que TBK1 est spécifiquement impliquée dans l’induction traductionnelle de HIF-1alpha en condition de stress hypoxique. L’expression de TBK1 est induite sous ces conditions, et cette kinase module la phosphorylation de ERK, RSK, Akt et TSC1. Les résultats originaux présentés dans cette thèse montrent donc que les kinases IKK et IKK-related exercent leurs actions pro-inflammatoires par des mécanismes distincts. / Inflammation is a complex process that allows elimination of tissular damaging agents and thus facilitates wound repair. Persistance of a damaging agent or the incapacity to resolve the inflammatory state leads to chronic homeostatic deregulation with putative incidence on morbidity and mortality. Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory state of blood vessels which origins are multifactorial. Hypertension and the infectious state represent classical and emerging factors of atherosclerosis development, respectively. The innate immune response takes place in the initial steps of inflammation, and represents the first cellular line of defense against danger signals. The goal of this thesis is to examine the pro-inflammatory roles of the IkB kinases (IKK) and the IKK-related kinases, which are essential innate immune response protein kinases. IKKalpha and IKKbeta form, together with NEMO/IKKgamma, the IKK complex. This complex is responsible of the phosphorylation of the inhibitor of NF-kappaB, IkappaBalpha, a process that leads to its degradation and NF-kappaB release. By immunoprecipitation of NEMO and assessment of the IKK complex activity in vitro, we show that the vasoactive peptide angiotensin II (AngII) induces IKKbeta phosphotransferase activity in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). The use of RNA interference (RNAi) against IKKbeta reveals that this kinase is responsible for p65/RelA phosphorylation. AngII modulation of NF-kappaB is atypical since it does not modulate IkappaB. Moreover, the use of pharmacological inhibitors shows that p65 induction is independent of both MEK-ERK-RSK and PI3K pathways, and that it does not involve EGF receptor transactivation. IKK-related kinases Tank-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and IKK-i are known to be induced by bacterial and viral infections. These kinases are able to phosphorylate directly interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3 transcription factor. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) seropositivity was shown to be linked to atherosclerosis development. We show that TBK1 activity is induced in HCMV-infected VSMC. RNAi directed against TBK1 and IKK-i reveals that both kinases are required for IRF-3 activation. The use of a VSMC line that express a dominant negative version if IRF-3 shows that this transcription factor is involved in the induction of RANTES and IP-10 chemokines, as assessed by RT-PCR. In addition, IKK-related kinases were recently shown to be implicated in oncogenic transformation. TBK1 was also shown to be pro-angiogenic. Angiogenesis is known to be regulated by the hypoxic response, a common condition of inflammatory processes. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1 is a transcription factor that modulates angiogenesis, inflammation and cell survival. We show with the use of Tbk1 and Ikbke -/- cells combined with the use of a lentiviral approach that TBK1 is specifically involved in HIF-1alpha translational induction under hypoxic stress. We also show that TBK1 expression is enhanced under theses conditions, and that this kinase modulates the phosphorylation of ERK, RSK, Akt and TSC1. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis show that the IKK and IKK-related kinases are both pro-inflammatory, and exert their actions by distinct mechanisms.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant burden in contemporary society due to an aging population, unhealthy dietary choices and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. While the underlying defects for many hereditary forms of CRC have been determined, many genetic and epigenetic changes promoting common sporadic CRCs have yet to be identified. The Mutated in Colorectal Cancer (MCC) gene, identified in 1991, was initially thought to be responsible for the hereditary form of CRC, familial adenomatous polyposis, before the discovery of the susceptibility gene Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC), which then became the focus of intense research. Recent data, however, suggests that MCC may also be important in the development of CRC. I have investigated the mechanism of MCC gene silencing, the putative structure, and multiple functions of MCC. MCC was frequently silenced by promoter hypermethylation in CRC cell lines and primary tumours. MCC methylation showed strong molecular and clinicopathological associations with hallmarks of the serrated neoplasia pathway. Furthermore, MCC methylation was more frequent in serrated precursor lesions compared with adenomas, thus occurring early during carcinogenesis. MCC is highly conserved in complex multicellular organisms. Re-introduction of MCC in CRC cell lines resulted in partial G1 to S phase, and G2/M phase cell cycle blocks, potentially by upregulating cell cycle inhibitor gene transcription and interfering with the process of mitotic checkpoints and division, respectively. Changes in MCC levels also modulated NF?B pathway signalling, the pathway required for maintaining cell viability and proliferation in colonic epithelial cells. In particular, MCC overexpression suppressed both TNF? and LPS-induced NF?B activation, decreasing both the magnitude and rate of cellular responses. Overexpression also resulted in downregulation of proteins involved in canonical NF?B pathway signalling, while increasing the transcription of non-canonical NF?B genes. Therefore, MCC may direct activation of this pathway to a specific subset of NF?B-regulated genes. These data provide a molecular basis for the role of MCC as a tumour suppressor gene in CRC. MCC may have multiple functions, regulating cell cycle progression and modulating NF?B pathway signalling, either through direct involvement in pathway signalling cascades, or by providing a scaffold on which signalling events can occur.

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Hodgkin und Reed-Sternberg (H/RS) Zellen sind die Tumorzellen des klassischen Hodgkin-Lymphoms (cHL) und stammen in den meisten Fällen von Keimzentrums B-Zellen, sehr selten von T-Zellen ab. Als einen zentralen Mechanismus für die zelluläre maligne Transformation und Apoptoseresistenz von H/RS Zellen konnte eine deregulierte, konstitutive Aktivität des Transkriptionsfaktors NF-kappaB (NF-kB) in H/RS Zellkernen nachgewiesen werden. Die transkriptionelle Aktivität von NF-kB wird durch spezifische Inhibitoren, IkB-alpha, IkB-beta, IkB-gamma und IkB-epsilon, reguliert. Jüngst konnte ein Defekt des IkB-alpha Gens im Primärmaterial eines Patienten mit cHL und in zwei Hodgkin Zellinien nachgewiesen werden. IkB-epsilon als ein weiterer wichtiger Regulator der NF-kB Aktivität hat in murinen Zellen eine hohe Affinität zur NF-kB Untereinheit p65, welche in H/RS Zellen insbesondere als Heterodimer p50/p65 vorkommt. In dieser Arbeit wurde das humane IkB-epsilon Gen kloniert und auf Mutationen in primären Tumorzellen untersucht. Das Primärmaterial stammte aus denselben sechs Patientenfällen, die schon zuvor auf Mutationen des IkB-alpha Gens untersucht worden waren. Das IkB-epsilon Gen liegt auf dem kurzen Arm des Chromosom 6 (6p21.1) und ist strukturell eng mit den anderen IkB Molekülen verwandt. In primären H/RS Zellen eines Patienten wurde eine homozygote Mutation an der 5´- Splicesite des Intron 1 gefunden. Diese Mutation war spezifisch für H/RS Zellen dieses Falls, und normale reaktive Lymphozyten wiesen ausschließlich den Wildtyp auf. In Zusammenschau mit den bisher identifizierten Defekten des IkB/ NF-kB Systems zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass dysfunktionelle NF-kB Inhibitoren bei einem Teil der cHL Fälle zu einer Fehlregulation von NF-kB führen können und damit für die zelluläre Pathophysiologie von Bedeutung sind. / The pathogenesis of Hodgkin-Lymphoma (HL) is still unclear. Previous investigations have demonstrated constitutive nuclear activity of the transcription factor NF kappa B (NF-kB) in Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells as an important prerequisite in protecting these cells from apoptosis. As a molecular mechanism leading to constitutive NF-kB activity in HRS cells, mutations of the NF-kB inhibitor I kappaB-alpha have recently been identified in classical (c) HL-derived cell lines in a patient with cHL. In this work, the NF-kB inhibitor I kappaB-epsilon has been analysed for somatic mutations in the same group of six patients already studied for I kappaB-alpha mutations, as well as in cHL-derived cell lines. In the HRS cells of one patient, a hemizygous mutation affecting the 5-splicing site of intron 1 of the I kappaB-epsilon gene was found, most likely leading to misspliced mRNA products. Other work of our group showed a hemizygous frame-shift mutation of the I kappaB-epsilon gene in one cHL-derived cell line (L428), generating a pre-terminal stop codon resulting in a severely truncated protein. These results, in combination with recently described I kappaB-alpha mutations, indicate that defective NF-kB inhibitors appear more frequent than previously thought and might explain the constitutive nuclear activity of NF-kB in a significant proportion of cHL cases.

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) were initially discovered as proteins that inducibly interact with the intracellular region of TNF receptors (TNFRs). Because the TNFRs lack intrinsic catalytic activity, the TRAFs are hypothesized to orchestrate signaling activation downstream of the TNFR superfamily, however their mechanism of activation remains unclear (Inoue et al., 2000; Bishop, 2004). Originally, the TRAFs were compared to the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) protein family, due to their sequence homology, and the presence of multiple RING- and zinc-finger domains, suggesting that their function may be to regulate transcriptional activity (Rothe et al., 1994; Hu et al., 1994; Sato et al. 1995; Cheng et al., 1995). However, subsequent research focused predominantly on their cytoplasmic functions, and more recently on their function as E3 ubiquitin ligases (Pineda et al., 2007). In my research, I analyzed the subcellular localizations of the TRAFs following CD40 ligand (CD40L)-stimulation, and found that TRAF2 and 3 rapidly translocate into the nucleus of primary neurons and Neuro2a cells. Interestingly, similar analysis conducted in pre-B lymphocytes (Daudi cells) revealed a different response to CD40L-stimulation, with TRAF2 and 3 being rapidly degraded within 5-minutes of stimulation. These findings are significant because they demonstrate for the first time that the TRAFs translocate into the nucleus and suggest that they may function within the nucleus in a cell-specific manner. I next analyzed the ability of TRAF2 and 3 to bind to DNA, and found that they both bind to chromatin and the NF-kappaB consensus element in Neuro2a cells, following CD40L-stimulation. Similar analyses of the chromatin binding of TRAF2 and 3 in Daudi cells revealed that they were rapidly degraded, similar to the results from my analysis of their subcellular localization. These findings show for the first time that the TRAFs interact with DNA, and therefore support the hypothesis that the TRAFs may function within the nucleus as transcriptional regulators. Finally, I analyzed the ability of the TRAFs to regulate transcriptional activity by luciferase assay. Previous studies showed that overexpression of TRAF2 and 6 could induce NF-kappaB transcriptional activity; however researchers have not been able to determine the mechanism by which they do so. In my studies, I found that every TRAF can directly regulate transcriptional activity either as co-activators or co-repressors of transcription, in a cell- and target protein-specific manner. Additionally, I found that TRAF2 can act as a transcriptional activator, and that its ability to regulate transcription is largely dependent upon the presence of its RING-finger domain. In conclusion, these studies have revealed an entirely novel function for the TRAFs as immediate-early transcriptional regulators. Future research into the genes that are regulated by the specific TRAF complexes will further elucidate how the TRAFs regulate TNFR signaling, as well as whether dysfunctions in TRAF signaling may be associated with known disorders. If specific TRAF complexes are found to regulate specific genes, then pharmacological targeting of the individual TRAF complexes may allow for the highly specific inhibition of signaling events downstream of the TNFRs, without compromising overall receptor signaling, transcription factor pathways, or cellular systems.

NF-κB is a transcription factor protein complex that plays an important role in some cancers and inflammatory responses. It can enhance the proliferation rate, reduce apoptosis, as well as create more blood flow to ensure the survival of cancer. Thus blocking the NF-κB pathway has potential therapeutic benefit. We designed a series of compounds based on quinazoline scaffold pharmacophore model which may have high binding affinity with p50 subunit of NF-κB. The compound series with phenyl substitution at position 2 of quinazoline proved to be more effective at inhibiting NF-κB function both theoretically and experimentally. These compounds also reduce the proliferation of numerous tumor cell lines and the mean GI50 for representative compound 2a is 2.88μM on NCI 60 cell lines. Compound 2a can induce significant apoptosis at the concentration of 1μM. The exploration of the mechanism of action of these compounds found that 2a does not inhibit kinases upstream of NF-κB and does not inhibit p65 translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus as 2b does. However 2a inhibits NF-κB dependent Luciferase expression as well as NF-κB target genes better than 2b. This may suggest that 2a inhibits the NF-κB pathway by directly blocking gene transcription, while 2b acts at cytoplasmic stage.