O estudo teve como objetivo contribuir com a caracterização do mel das abelhas sem ferrão, especificamente a caracterização botânica e físico-química de maneira a fornecer subsídios para programas e medidas de incremento da atividade meliponícola. Foram definidos como locais de estudo municípios do Paraná (Bandeirantes, Cornélio Procópio e Guaraqueçaba), Santa Catarina (Saltinho do Canivete/Mafra) e São Paulo (Icém). As amostras, composta por 250 mL de mel, foram obtidas diretamente com os meliponicultores de acordo com o pico de produção melífera de cada região no período compreendido entre abril a dezembro de 2011 e abril a dezembro de 2012. Os parâmetros físico-químicos analisados foram: hidroximetilfurfural, pH, acidez, condutividade elétrica, cinzas, umidade, cor, açúcares redutores, sacarose e atividade diastásica. Para determinação dos elementos-traços foi utilizada a técnica de Voltametria de Redissolução Anódica de Pulso Diferencial. A análise polínica foi realizada seguindo o método padrão de acetólise e em seguida submetidas as análises quantitativas (contagem consecutiva de até 1.000 grãos de pólen/amostra) e qualitativas. Quanto aos parâmetros açúcares redutores, sacarose, hidroximetilfurfural e cinzas as amostras de mel de meliponíneos atendem aos pré-requisitos da legislação vigente. Já os parâmetros umidade e atividade diastásica divergiram. Este fato aponta a necessidade de criação de uma legislação especifica para mel das abelhas nativas levando em consideração o elevado número de espécies e suas características diferenciadas. A determinação dos elementos-traços (Cd, Cu, Pb e Zn) indica que as amostras de mel de abelhas sem ferrão apresentam concentrações não prejudiciais a saúde humana. Com análise polínica verificou-se diversidade de espécies vegetais utilizadas por essas abelhas sendo, a família Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae, Faboideae e Mimosoideae) a que apresentou maior riqueza de tipos polínicos, seguida de por Asteraceae, Myrtaceae e Solanaceae. / The study aimed to contribute to the characterization of honey from stingless bees, specifically botany and physico-chemical characterization in order to provide support for programs and measures to increase the meliponícola activity. Were defined as study sites municipalities of Paraná (Bandeirantes, Cornélio Procópio e Guaraqueçaba), Santa Catarina (Saltinho do Canivete/Mafra) and São Paulo (Icém). The samples, consisting of 250 mL of honey, were obtained directly from the beekeepers in accordance with the peak honey production in each region for the period April to December 2011 and from April to December 2012. The physicochemical parameters analyzed were: hydroxymethylfurfural, pH, acidity, electrical conductivity, ash, moisture, color, reducing sugars, sucrose and diastase activity. For determination of trace elements technique anodic stripping voltammetry differential pulse was used. Pollen analysis was performed following the standard acetolysis method, and then subjected to quantitative analysis (row count to 1.000 pollen grains/sample) and qualitative. As for the parameters reducing sugars, sucrose, hydroxymethylfurfural and ash samples of honey from stingless bees meet the prerequisites of the current legislation. Have the parameters humidity and diastase activity diverged. This fact points out the need to create specific regulations for honey from native bees taking into account the high number of species and their different characteristics. The determination of trace elements (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) indicates that samples of honey from stingless bees exhibit concentrations not harmful to human health. With pollen analysis it was found diversity of plant species used by these bees being the family Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae, Faboideae and Mimosoideae) presented the highest richness of pollen types, followed by Asteraceae, Myrtaceae and Solanaceae.

As pressures of a growing population take their toll on our environment, efforts must be made to facilitate sustainable behaviours at the neighbourhood scale. Science is demonstrating that the abundance and diversity of native bees is declining in many locales around the world. One of the major drivers of this decline is the loss and fragmentation of habitat, caused in part by suburban expansion. This emerging landscape is dominated by a garden typology not beneficial to bee populations. Using the principles and theories of Community-Based Social Marketing (CBSM) and a survey of Guelph gardeners and homeowners, effective program strategies are outlined for implementation by Pollination Guelph, and target the behaviours and barriers associated with activities that negatively impact native bees. A CBSM based program will encourage bee-friendly gardening, promote the aggregate changes needed to alter the individuals gardening behaviours, and potentially increase native bee populations in the suburban neighbourhoods of Guelph.

O estudo teve como objetivo contribuir com a caracterização do mel das abelhas sem ferrão, especificamente a caracterização botânica e físico-química de maneira a fornecer subsídios para programas e medidas de incremento da atividade meliponícola. Foram definidos como locais de estudo municípios do Paraná (Bandeirantes, Cornélio Procópio e Guaraqueçaba), Santa Catarina (Saltinho do Canivete/Mafra) e São Paulo (Icém). As amostras, composta por 250 mL de mel, foram obtidas diretamente com os meliponicultores de acordo com o pico de produção melífera de cada região no período compreendido entre abril a dezembro de 2011 e abril a dezembro de 2012. Os parâmetros físico-químicos analisados foram: hidroximetilfurfural, pH, acidez, condutividade elétrica, cinzas, umidade, cor, açúcares redutores, sacarose e atividade diastásica. Para determinação dos elementos-traços foi utilizada a técnica de Voltametria de Redissolução Anódica de Pulso Diferencial. A análise polínica foi realizada seguindo o método padrão de acetólise e em seguida submetidas as análises quantitativas (contagem consecutiva de até 1.000 grãos de pólen/amostra) e qualitativas. Quanto aos parâmetros açúcares redutores, sacarose, hidroximetilfurfural e cinzas as amostras de mel de meliponíneos atendem aos pré-requisitos da legislação vigente. Já os parâmetros umidade e atividade diastásica divergiram. Este fato aponta a necessidade de criação de uma legislação especifica para mel das abelhas nativas levando em consideração o elevado número de espécies e suas características diferenciadas. A determinação dos elementos-traços (Cd, Cu, Pb e Zn) indica que as amostras de mel de abelhas sem ferrão apresentam concentrações não prejudiciais a saúde humana. Com análise polínica verificou-se diversidade de espécies vegetais utilizadas por essas abelhas sendo, a família Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae, Faboideae e Mimosoideae) a que apresentou maior riqueza de tipos polínicos, seguida de por Asteraceae, Myrtaceae e Solanaceae. / The study aimed to contribute to the characterization of honey from stingless bees, specifically botany and physico-chemical characterization in order to provide support for programs and measures to increase the meliponícola activity. Were defined as study sites municipalities of Paraná (Bandeirantes, Cornélio Procópio e Guaraqueçaba), Santa Catarina (Saltinho do Canivete/Mafra) and São Paulo (Icém). The samples, consisting of 250 mL of honey, were obtained directly from the beekeepers in accordance with the peak honey production in each region for the period April to December 2011 and from April to December 2012. The physicochemical parameters analyzed were: hydroxymethylfurfural, pH, acidity, electrical conductivity, ash, moisture, color, reducing sugars, sucrose and diastase activity. For determination of trace elements technique anodic stripping voltammetry differential pulse was used. Pollen analysis was performed following the standard acetolysis method, and then subjected to quantitative analysis (row count to 1.000 pollen grains/sample) and qualitative. As for the parameters reducing sugars, sucrose, hydroxymethylfurfural and ash samples of honey from stingless bees meet the prerequisites of the current legislation. Have the parameters humidity and diastase activity diverged. This fact points out the need to create specific regulations for honey from native bees taking into account the high number of species and their different characteristics. The determination of trace elements (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) indicates that samples of honey from stingless bees exhibit concentrations not harmful to human health. With pollen analysis it was found diversity of plant species used by these bees being the family Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae, Faboideae and Mimosoideae) presented the highest richness of pollen types, followed by Asteraceae, Myrtaceae and Solanaceae.

Through pollination, bees are responsible for the persistence of many biological systems on our planet. Bees have also been used for thousands of years in agriculture to improve crop quality and yield. Recently, there have been declines in honeybees worldwide. This decline is concerning because it threatens food supplies and global biodiversity. An alternative to alleviating the effect of a honey bee shortage could be to use native bees. Problems with adoption of native bees in agriculture occur because of a lack of large scale analysis methods for native bees, regional species lists and management knowledge. This research explores the use of GIS in modeling native bee habitat to provide a landscape scale analysis method for native bees and develop a systematic sampling method for regional species list development. Raster GIS modeling, incorporating decision support and Poisson statistical methods were used to develop a native bee habitat model. The results show landscape composition is important to bee abundance and diversity. In addition, habitat fragmentation may not be as detrimental to bees as previously thought. Bees are most sensitive to landscape composition at a scale of 250 m, but require large patches of floral resources. GIS proved to be very useful in modeling bee habitat and provides an opportunity to conduct landscape scale bee population analysis. / Master of Science

Diversos aspectos vêm sendo estudados com relação à introdução de novas variedades de mirtilo no Brasil. A polinização de culturas tipicamente de clima temperado em clima tropical representa um enorme desafio para adaptação dessa cultura no país. Estudos relacionados à biologia básica da reprodução e ecologia da polinização envolvendo abelhas nas variedades do tipo Southern Highbush, ainda são inexistentes no Brasil e serão importantes para disseminação do cultivo. Levando-se em consideração que um dos aspectos determinantes dos efeitos de plantas exóticas nas comunidades nativas é a forma como interagem com a fauna, esse trabalho buscou identificar algumas variáveis relacionadas à polinização envolvidas no processo de produção comercial da cultura do mirtilo. Os objetivos do trabalho foram: compreender aspectos básicos relacionados ao sistema de polinização em quatro variedades do tipo Southern Highbush; identificar os requerimentos básicos de polinização; observar as abelhas presentes na área de produção e observar o comportamento de visita floral e a sobrevivência de abelhas sem ferrão de cinco espécies diferentes (Melipona quadrifasciata, Frieseomelitta varia, Scaptotrigona depilis, Tetragonisca angustula e Plebeia droryana) introduzidas em área de produção comercial de mirtilo. Observações diretas no campo foram realizadas para variáveis como formação de frutos expostos ou não a polinizadores, tamanho de flores, danos às flores por abelhas do gênero Trigona, entre outros. O florescimento das quatro variedades na área de produção apresentou um comportamento muito semelhante com pequenas variações ao longo do período de observação. Iniciou por volta da última semana de fevereiro com menos de 1% das plantas floridas, e uma predominância da variedade Emerald no início do florescimento. O pico de florescimento ocorreu nos meses de março a julho, com final de florescimento bastante determinado em setembro. O período de antese das flores foi observado para todas as quatro variedades, das 07:00h até às 09:00h da manhã. Após esse período a flor permanecia aberta até sua senescência, cerca de seis a sete dias depois. Os estigmas das quatro variedades permaneceram receptivos desde a abertura da flor até o sexto dia após a antese. A viabilidade polínica foi verificada desde antese da flor até o momento de senescência da mesma. Um percentual de 89% dos grãos pólen contabilizados, nas quatro variedades avaliadas, apresentou-se viável até o quarto dia de vida da flor. Abelhas da espécie Frieseomelitta varia, Tetragonisca angustula e Plebeia droryana estiveram presentes em todas as observações. Já abelhas do gênero Melipona quadrifasciata e Scaptotrigona depilis não foram observadas visitando as flores de mirtilo. Os resultados mostram que mesmo em um ambiente com uma intensidade grande de manejo fitossanitário as abelhas suportaram razoavelmente bem, com apenas uma ocorrência de mortalidade de colônias. Os danos provocados por abelhas do gênero Trigona não foram severos e após a introdução de abelhas manejáveis, abelhas do gênero Trigona não foram mais observadas na área de produção. Concluímos que a cultura do mirtilo é amplamente beneficiada pela polinização cruzada e o manejo de determinados polinizadores nativos, além da abelha exótica Apis mellifera, contribui com o aumento da produtividade da cultura. / Several aspects have been studied in relation to the introduction of new blueberry varieties in Brazil. Pollination of crops typically temperate in tropical climate presents a huge challenge to adapt this crop in the country. Studies related to basic breeding biology and pollination ecology involving bees in Southern Highbush varieties are still non-existent in Brazil and will be important for dissemination of the crop. Taking into account that one of the determinant aspects of the effects of exotic plants in native communities is the way they interact with the fauna, this work sought to identify some variables related to the pollination involved in the commercial production process of the blueberry crop. The objectives of this work were: to understand basic aspects related to the pollination system in four Southern Highbush varieties; identify the basic pollination requirements; (Melipona quadrifasciata, Frieseomelitta varia, Scaptotrigona depilis, Tetragonisca angustula and Plebeia droryana) introduced into the commercial production area of blueberry . Direct observations in the field were performed for variables such as the formation of fruit exposed or not to pollinators, size of flowers, damage to flowers by bees of the genus Trigona, among others. The flowering of the four varieties in the production area showed a very similar behavior with small variations throughout the period of observation. It began around the last week of February with less than 1% of flowering plants, and a predominance of the \'Emerald\' variety at the beginning of flowering. The flowering peak occurred in the months of March to July, with a flowering end determined in September. The anthesis period of the flowers was observed for all four varieties, from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. in the morning. After this period the flower remained open until its senescence, about six to seven days later. The stigmas of the four varieties remained receptive from the opening of the flower to the sixth day after the anthesis. The pollen viability was verified from before the flower until the moment of its senescence. A percentage of 89% of the pollen grains counted, in the four varieties evaluated, was viable until the fourth day of life of the flower. Bees of the species Frieseomelitta varia, Tetragonisca angustula and Plebeia droryana were present in all observations. Bees of the genus Melipona quadrifasciata and Scaptotrigona depilis were not observed were not observed visiting the blueberry flowers. The results show that even in an environment with a great intensity of phytosanitary management the bees supported reasonably well, with only one occurrence of colony mortality. The damage caused by bees of the genus Trigona was not severe and after the introduction of manageable bees, bees of the genus Trigona were no longer observed in the production area. We conclude that blueberry cultivation is widely benefited by cross - pollination and the management of certain native pollinators, in addition to the exotic bee Apis mellifera, contributes to the increase of crop productivity.

Diversos aspectos vêm sendo estudados com relação à introdução de novas variedades de mirtilo no Brasil. A polinização de culturas tipicamente de clima temperado em clima tropical representa um enorme desafio para adaptação dessa cultura no país. Estudos relacionados à biologia básica da reprodução e ecologia da polinização envolvendo abelhas nas variedades do tipo Southern Highbush, ainda são inexistentes no Brasil e serão importantes para disseminação do cultivo. Levando-se em consideração que um dos aspectos determinantes dos efeitos de plantas exóticas nas comunidades nativas é a forma como interagem com a fauna, esse trabalho buscou identificar algumas variáveis relacionadas à polinização envolvidas no processo de produção comercial da cultura do mirtilo. Os objetivos do trabalho foram: compreender aspectos básicos relacionados ao sistema de polinização em quatro variedades do tipo Southern Highbush; identificar os requerimentos básicos de polinização; observar as abelhas presentes na área de produção e observar o comportamento de visita floral e a sobrevivência de abelhas sem ferrão de cinco espécies diferentes (Melipona quadrifasciata, Frieseomelitta varia, Scaptotrigona depilis, Tetragonisca angustula e Plebeia droryana) introduzidas em área de produção comercial de mirtilo. Observações diretas no campo foram realizadas para variáveis como formação de frutos expostos ou não a polinizadores, tamanho de flores, danos às flores por abelhas do gênero Trigona, entre outros. O florescimento das quatro variedades na área de produção apresentou um comportamento muito semelhante com pequenas variações ao longo do período de observação. Iniciou por volta da última semana de fevereiro com menos de 1% das plantas floridas, e uma predominância da variedade Emerald no início do florescimento. O pico de florescimento ocorreu nos meses de março a julho, com final de florescimento bastante determinado em setembro. O período de antese das flores foi observado para todas as quatro variedades, das 07:00h até às 09:00h da manhã. Após esse período a flor permanecia aberta até sua senescência, cerca de seis a sete dias depois. Os estigmas das quatro variedades permaneceram receptivos desde a abertura da flor até o sexto dia após a antese. A viabilidade polínica foi verificada desde antese da flor até o momento de senescência da mesma. Um percentual de 89% dos grãos pólen contabilizados, nas quatro variedades avaliadas, apresentou-se viável até o quarto dia de vida da flor. Abelhas da espécie Frieseomelitta varia, Tetragonisca angustula e Plebeia droryana estiveram presentes em todas as observações. Já abelhas do gênero Melipona quadrifasciata e Scaptotrigona depilis não foram observadas visitando as flores de mirtilo. Os resultados mostram que mesmo em um ambiente com uma intensidade grande de manejo fitossanitário as abelhas suportaram razoavelmente bem, com apenas uma ocorrência de mortalidade de colônias. Os danos provocados por abelhas do gênero Trigona não foram severos e após a introdução de abelhas manejáveis, abelhas do gênero Trigona não foram mais observadas na área de produção. Concluímos que a cultura do mirtilo é amplamente beneficiada pela polinização cruzada e o manejo de determinados polinizadores nativos, além da abelha exótica Apis mellifera, contribui com o aumento da produtividade da cultura. / Several aspects have been studied in relation to the introduction of new blueberry varieties in Brazil. Pollination of crops typically temperate in tropical climate presents a huge challenge to adapt this crop in the country. Studies related to basic breeding biology and pollination ecology involving bees in Southern Highbush varieties are still non-existent in Brazil and will be important for dissemination of the crop. Taking into account that one of the determinant aspects of the effects of exotic plants in native communities is the way they interact with the fauna, this work sought to identify some variables related to the pollination involved in the commercial production process of the blueberry crop. The objectives of this work were: to understand basic aspects related to the pollination system in four Southern Highbush varieties; identify the basic pollination requirements; (Melipona quadrifasciata, Frieseomelitta varia, Scaptotrigona depilis, Tetragonisca angustula and Plebeia droryana) introduced into the commercial production area of blueberry . Direct observations in the field were performed for variables such as the formation of fruit exposed or not to pollinators, size of flowers, damage to flowers by bees of the genus Trigona, among others. The flowering of the four varieties in the production area showed a very similar behavior with small variations throughout the period of observation. It began around the last week of February with less than 1% of flowering plants, and a predominance of the \'Emerald\' variety at the beginning of flowering. The flowering peak occurred in the months of March to July, with a flowering end determined in September. The anthesis period of the flowers was observed for all four varieties, from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. in the morning. After this period the flower remained open until its senescence, about six to seven days later. The stigmas of the four varieties remained receptive from the opening of the flower to the sixth day after the anthesis. The pollen viability was verified from before the flower until the moment of its senescence. A percentage of 89% of the pollen grains counted, in the four varieties evaluated, was viable until the fourth day of life of the flower. Bees of the species Frieseomelitta varia, Tetragonisca angustula and Plebeia droryana were present in all observations. Bees of the genus Melipona quadrifasciata and Scaptotrigona depilis were not observed were not observed visiting the blueberry flowers. The results show that even in an environment with a great intensity of phytosanitary management the bees supported reasonably well, with only one occurrence of colony mortality. The damage caused by bees of the genus Trigona was not severe and after the introduction of manageable bees, bees of the genus Trigona were no longer observed in the production area. We conclude that blueberry cultivation is widely benefited by cross - pollination and the management of certain native pollinators, in addition to the exotic bee Apis mellifera, contributes to the increase of crop productivity.

In cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) cultivation, farmers typically rent colonies of honey bee (Apis mellifera) for pollination. However, the efficiency of this bee at pollinating cranberries in Oregon, as in other regions, is questionable. Bumble bees (Bombus sp.) are reportedly effective in other regions, but their impact in Oregon is unknown. My objectives were to: (i) Compare bumble bee and honey bee pollination efficiencies under caged conditions; (ii) Estimate the abundance of bumble bees, honey bees, and other pollinators on an Oregon cranberry farm; and iii) Analyze and compare sources of pollen collected by bumble bees and honey bees in Oregon cranberries. In comparing pollination efficiencies of bumble bees and honey bees under caged conditions, the analysis of variance of data from the cage study indicated that bumble bee and honey bee pollinated plants yielded statistically equivalent average numbers of cranberries (1421 ± 302.5 and 1405 ± 347.6 berries/m², respectively) and weight of berries (11.5 ± 2.42 and 11.5 ± 2.77g/m²). However, bumble bees may have increased fruit set in honey bee treatments. On one occasion, bumble bees were found in the honey bee treatment, and may have contributed to the pollination of flowers in these plots. To estimate the abundance of pollinators, visual observations and were blue vane traps were utilized. Thirty-four timed visual observations in transects of cranberry beds were performed over on four dates during cranberry bloom. Blue vane traps were set-up on five occasions during bloom for two day periods. In the visual observations, honey bees (3.5 ± 0.58/min) were observed more frequently than bumble bees (1.2 ± 0.20/min). Bumble bees of four species made up 69.1% of trapped bees while honey bees made up 16.6% of bees caught in blue vane traps. On an Oregon cranberry farm during bloom periods in 2009, 2010 and 2011, pollen was collected from honey bee colonies using pollen traps. In 2010 and 2011, pollen was hand collected from reared bumble bee (B. vosnesenkii) colonies at the same farm. A total of 2937 honey bee pollen loads and 171 bumble bee pollen samples (137 scopal pollen loads, and 34 samples from with the colony) were individually acetolyzed and compared to a reference collection using light microscopy. Each pollen load was homogenized and 100 pollen grains were identified and counted to determine the percentage of each pollen type. Pollen collected by honey bees consisted of 29.1 ± 1.4% (2009), 18.3 ± 2.4% (2010), and 23.0 ± 1.1% (2011) cranberry pollen. Cranberry pollen contributed a higher percentage (56.0 ± 6.1%, and 70.4 ± 4.3% in 2010, and 2011, respectively) in bumble bee collected pollen. Both bee species collected pollen from non-target plants including those in the following families: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Roseaceae. Native bumble bees (B. vosnesenskii) collected more cranberry pollen than pollen from non-target plants, and consistently collected a higher proportion of cranberry pollen than honey bees. The results of these studies suggest that native bumble bees may be adequate for cranberry pollination in Curry County, Oregon. However, the size of bumble bee populations may vary from year to year due to climactic conditions, availability of nesting sites, and forage before and after cranberry bloom. Thus the dependability and consistency pollination services rendered to cranberry crops by bumble bees needs to be further investigated in relation to population fluxuations. / Graduation date: 2012

Brazil is the country with the second-largest number of cataloged bee species in the world, about 2,000. Among these we have stingless bees, with around 250 different species; these live in society, produce honey, and unlike the European Apis Mellifera, do not sting. Sadly, most Brazilians only know of the existence of a single bee species, which is the invasive European bee. Native bees are not only the most important pollinators of our native flora but are also part of an intricate and fragile web of life that is currently under threat. For each bee species that go extinct, there are far-reaching consequences for the entire ecosystem it belongs to, therefore it’s imperative to protect and care for our native bees.In this project, I've worked alongside the Terra Mirim foundation. I’ve compiled information on native bees, their biology, the native history of beekeeping, societal behavior, their importance, risks, etc. I started this work in collaboration with Terra Mirim, a foundation that works on the recovery of the Atlantic Forest and has over 60 native beehives under their care, they also receive many visitors throughout the year who are looking for closer contact with nature. I believe awareness, knowledge, and proximity are important starting points for developing empathy towards other forms of life, so along with the photographs I’ve been taking, I am transforming the information I compiled into signboards to promote awareness among Terra Mirim’s visitors.

Declines in pollinators around the globe, notably the loss of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) to Colony Collapse Disorder, coupled with a dearth of quantitative data on non-Apis bee pollinators, led to this dissertation research, which documents the role of non-Apis bees in crop pollination in southwest Virginia. Major findings of this first study of its kind in the region were that non-Apis bees provided the majority of pollination—measured by visitation—for several economically important entomophilous crops (apple, blueberry, caneberry, and cucurbits); diverse bee populations may be helping to stabilize pollination service (105 species on crop flowers); landscape factors were better predictors of non-Apis crop pollination service than farm management factors or overall bee diversity; and non-Apis bees in the genera Andrena, Bombus, and Osmia were as constant as honey bees when foraging on apple. Non-Apis, primarily native, bees made up between 68% (in caneberries) and 83% (in cucurbits) of bees observed visiting crop flowers. While 37–59 species visited crop flowers, there was low correspondence between bee communities across or within crop systems ("within crop" Jaccard similarity indices for richness ranged from 0.12–0.28). Bee community diversity on crop flowers may help stabilize pollination service if one or more species declines temporally or spatially. A few species were especially important in each crop: Andrena barbara in apple; Andrena carlini and A. vicina in blueberry; Lasioglossum leucozonium in caneberry; and Peponapis pruinosa and Bombus impatiens in cucurbits. Eight species collected were Virginia state records. In models testing effects of farm management and landscape on non-Apis crop pollination service, percent deciduous forest was positively correlated in apple, blueberry, and squash, but at different scales. For apple and blueberry, pollination service declined with an increase in utilized alternative forage but was positively related to habitat heterogeneity. For squash, percent native plants also related positively, possibly due to increased presence of bumble bees in late summer. Species collected from both bowl traps and flowers was as low as 22% and overall site bee diversity had no effect on crop pollination service, highlighting the value in pollination research of monitoring bees on flowers. / Ph. D.

Reports of declining insect populations suggest that more research focusing on this phenomenon is needed, especially in pollinator insects. Climate change, habitat destruction, and usage of certain pesticides have all been implicated in insect decline. Neonicotinoid pesticides are highly toxic to bees, can have drastic sub-lethal effects on behavior, and are persistent in the environment; likewise, they have been implicated as a major factor affecting bee populations. However, there are limited studies on native bees regarding their interactions with neonicotinoids, even regarding simple questions such as exposure levels. In this study, we aimed to assess concentrations of common neonicotinoids in native bees and soils from a threatened habitat in our region, the Black Belt Prairie, by using a modified QuEChERS LC/MS-MS protocol. Our results showed that specific taxa of native bees- Bombus spp., Xylocopa spp., and Mellissodes spp. (Family: Apidae)- were exposed to neonicotinoids. In contrast, no concentration of neonicotinoids was detected in our soil samples.