Water management has been described as one of the major natural resource management challenges facing our rural industries, regional communities, our unique natural environments and indeed, even our survival. Within this context, water ethics has emerged as a research area of some significance. However to date, a majority of the research has clustered around economic and environmental concerns. For the most part, explorations into the ethical management of water have been limited to a deliberative focus on the establishment of property rights and effective water pricing and trading mechanisms. These narrow economic approaches fail to recognise the diversity and plurality of our water values or to adequately address broader social values such as equity and justice. This research aims to address these imbalances by focusing on how we might develop a deeper understanding of ethical practice in the context of more sustainable water management. It achieves this by outlining an alternative ethical framework which will support these more sustainable social and policy outcomes. Thus, the rationale for this thesis is to demonstrate that contractual ethics, or even more specifically Scanlonian contractualism, is a viable alternative normative ethical framework to utilitarianism for considering how we might justify these more sustainable water management outcomes. There is significant debate and conflict over how water should best be managed. These debates capture not only the nature of the way we interact with the environment but also the way we interact with each other. It is in these two sets of interactions that ethics can provide us with a way of justifying our actions and decisions and a basis for determining what we consider to be right or wrong, or acceptable or unacceptable in terms of water management practice. An important element of this thesis is recognising that how we think about water has important implications for how we manage water and to date, this has been undervalued in water management. To that end, I argue we must necessarily begin to appreciate the connection between what is happening in our conceptual and theoretical landscapes and how this impacts on our physical landscapes. It is in these interactions and connections that we begin to appreciate both the depth of complexity and the ‘wicked’ nature of water management. Thus, each of these debates and their related concerns exists within the broader context of how we think water should be managed and the processes by which we come to make and justify our decisions about water management. This thesis is therefore aimed at addressing this gap in the research around ethical water management. It achieves this by providing the basis for a framework which can capture not only the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of a more sustainable water ethic but also recognise and accommodate the significant research already undertaken in a variety of other disciplines. As a result, this thesis is necessarily interdisciplinary in its approach. While I base my arguments in the field of philosophical and ethical inquiry, the construction of a conceptual framework for a more sustainable water ethic is applicable to and widely influenced by a number of other fields including geography, anthropology, scientific research, economic theory, public policy and social theory. In recognising and preserving the interdisciplinary knowledge base around water management, part of the challenge has been to construct a conceptual framework and define ethical principles that can both honour this interdisciplinarity but also remain relevant in cross disciplinary settings. The nature of this interdisciplinary approach reinforces the inherent complexity of water management and was cause for some reflection because it raised the question of how best to address the research problem. This process of reflection had direct implications on the research process adopted in this thesis because it required not only an interdisciplinary response but also a balanced approach to preserving the complexity and the ‘wickedness’ of water management. These elements needed to be preserved in the research process because they are integral to our understanding of water management and inevitably raise the difficult and particularly ‘human’ questions we associate with it. Thus, the research process adopted in this thesis can be best understood as a process of reflective equilibrium. Reflective equilibrium describes the process by which we systematically examine our judgements and beliefs about a certain issue, searching for coherence with other beliefs and then revising those beliefs where evidence suggests they need to be modified. This approach allows for a range of diverse disciplinary considerations and interests to be considered in a holistic manner and is reflected in the following research activities. In the course of this thesis, I outline the development and construction of a conceptual framework for a more sustainable water ethic, which is based on a diverse range of disciplinary knowledge and expertise. This framework is supported by a rigorous and systematic application of contractual ethical principles. The first part of the thesis reflects a process of examination and review of relevant theoretical and methodological concerns, which enable interdisciplinary research to occur. In the second part of this thesis, a detailed analysis of contractual ethical principles and a philosophical analysis of values in the context of water management are presented. The findings elicited from these stages of the research are taken forward and used to examine two deliberately chosen but quite distinct case study analyses. These two case study examples reflect the diversity and range of political and policy concerns within the broader water management debate.

Doctor of Philosophy / The population size and range of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis have been greatly reduced in Africa in the past century, resulting in geographical isolation of local populations and some herds surviving at the edge of the species’ preferred range. Numerous factors have contributed to these declines, but historical analysis indicates that habitat loss and fragmentation, human encroachment, disease and poaching are the main threatening processes. These processes can be expected to continue to impact on giraffe populations, particularly as human populations grow and needs for land and resources increase. This study used field data and laboratory analyses to investigate the taxonomy, behaviour and ecology of desert-dwelling giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis in the northern Namib Desert. This population resides at the extreme of the giraffe’s range. My research also complements the community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) program of the Namibian government, and provides baseline data on the current population status and structure of giraffe in the Kunene Region. The field data, genetic, habitat and forage samples used in this study were collected by myself and a number of research assistants over a period of two years (2001 to 2003), following preliminary research that I undertook between 1999 and 2001. Laboratory analysis of genetic samples was conducted by Dr R. Brenneman and his team at Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha, NB., as well as by Mr D. Brown at UCLA, CA. Mr W. Gawa!nab and his team at the agricultural laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Affairs, Namibia, conducted chemical analyses on plant samples that form part of the giraffe’s diet. The genetic architecture of Namibian giraffe was investigated, including the samples from the desert-dwelling giraffe of the northern Namib Desert and giraffe from Etosha National Park. The results were compared with genetic profiles of giraffe subspecies throughout Africa, but in particular with G. c. giraffa which is the currently-accepted nomenclature of the Namibian giraffe. Results indicated that the Namibian giraffe has five unique haplotypes and is genetically distinct from G. c. giraffa or any other extant subspecies; it is considered here, tentatively, to represent G. c. angolensis. Furthermore, the Namibian Abstract iv giraffe has been separated from other populations for an extended period. Some gene flow has occurred between the desert-dwelling and Etosha NP giraffe population, and can be attributed to recent translocations between these regions. Within the study region, a sharing of haplotypes between three studied subpopulations indicated gene flow among giraffe throughout the northern Namib Desert, and this was confirmed by field-based monitoring. Taken together, these findings suggest that Namibian giraffe should be viewed as important for the conservation of overall genetic variation within Giraffa camelopardalis, although further investigation into the taxonomy of the Namibian form is warranted. Following these findings, I then investigated the behaviour and ecology of the desert-dwelling giraffe. As no previous study has been published on the ecology of G. c. angolensis, there is an information gap in our knowledge of this subspecies. One hundred and fifty six giraffe were identified individually using field-based identification methods and digital imagery. An assessment of the population structure and dynamics indicated marked variation in numbers, sex and age structure, herd structure and densities between three study areas. These variations possibly arose from differences in study area size, aridity, availability of forage and human impacts. I also investigated levels of associations between giraffe within the population using a simple ratio technique, and observed that increased association occurred in smaller populations; there appeared to be a matrilineal social structure. In one bull-biased population, a higher degree of association between bulls was observed compared to bulls in the other two populations. To gain further insight into the distribution and range of giraffe, I collected GPS locations from a combination of field-based monitoring and GPS satellite collars. The GPS satellite collars were the first trial of this technology on giraffe in Africa. Using Range Manager, a MapInfo animal location analysis extension program, I estimated 100% and 95% minimum convex polygon for daily, monthly and annual home range sizes of giraffe in the northern Namib Desert. Giraffe were observed to have large home ranges, with the largest individual range for a bull, Africa-wide, being recorded in this study. Large home ranges correlated with low population density, reduced diversity of forage and, in bulls, increased search areas for receptive cows. Giraffe movements occurred predominantly along riparian woodlands, although seasonal use of other habitats was recorded. Observations Abstract v Abstract vi and data from four GPS satellite-collared giraffe provided high-resolution data on daily movements, and indicated a pattern of highly biphasic movement behaviour that correlated with ambient temperatures. Diurnal activity budgets varied between the sexes, with cows spending more time feeding and resting, while bulls walked and ruminated more frequently. Juveniles rested more often than other giraffe. Seasonal variation in activity budgets was evident, perhaps reflecting use of an energy maximiser strategy for cows and an energy minimiser strategy for bulls. The establishment of artificial water points in the Hoanib River during the study period appeared to alter the seeming independence of giraffe on water in the northern Namib Desert, and also resulted in small-scale shifts in use of the riparian woodland by elephant. To investigate the diet of giraffe, I observed animals feeding in the field and also carried out laboratory analyses of the chemical content of preferred plant species. Seasonal changes in the abundance, moisture and protein content of available food plants correlated with shifts in the diet of giraffe. Giraffe impacted on their preferred forage source, Faidherbia albida, causing distinct structural changes in the individual plants and the F. albida population. This impact, combined with elephant damage and seasonal flood events, has resulted in a shift in the age structure and dynamics of the F. albida population over the past two decades. Finally, I present a brief overview on the history of conservation and management in the Kunene Region. The established CBNRM program provides a baseline for future wildlife conservation and management, of which the desert-dwelling giraffe could be an integral component for non-consumptive tourism. Long-term research on the population’s status, range, behaviour, social structure, habitat requirements, and ecology would help to provide a better understanding of the giraffe’s adaptation to the arid environment, while focussed legislation would enable increased control of communal lands and continue to benefit community-based conservancies.

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a country possessing abundant resources of gold, oil, copper, timber, and fish stocks. It is hampered in its development and management of these resources, however, by serious problems of governance and corruption. These problems are evident throughout the economy and also in the management of the environment. The level of environmental damage caused by the mining industry in PNG is now such that it will require extensive rehabilitation, if the areas affected can, indeed, ever be fully rehabilitated. The mining companies which precipitated this damage were licensed and encouraged by the PNG Government in the initiation and exercise of the mining operations. The resulting environmental impact has affected the lives of thousands of New Guineans to their detriment. The degradation caused remains unredressed. Compounding the problem, there is a growing reliance by Papua New Guinea on mineral exploitation for foreign direct investment, government revenues, and foreign exchange. Gold exports accounted for the biggest share of export revenues in 2002 representing 37.5% of the total. In light of this growing dependency on mining activities, there is a correspondingly urgent requirement to address the deficiencies in the administrative, monitoring, and policing aspects of the protection of its environment. Despite the public evidence of the damage to the environment and the ensuing affect on the people of Papua New Guinea by mining activities; and despite universal condemnation of these activities and the companies responsible; the companies continue to conduct these activities without official hindrance and with little apparent concern for the long-term ramifications of their actions. This thesis will examine the degradation resulting from the mining activities of companies in Papua New Guinea over the last three decades – particularly those of Placer Dome’s Porgera gold mine, BHP’s Ok Tedi gold and copper mine (the waste from both of which is dumped into the Ok Tedi and Strickland rivers which are tributaries of the Fly River and form part of the Fly River system) and Lihir Gold Limited's gold mine on Lihir Island. It will examine the extent to which the Government of Papua New Guinea may have wittingly (in the sense of a prescience as to the possible or probable likelihood of deleterious impact) or unwittingly contributed to that degradation as a result of its actions or omissions. Studies of available literature suggest that there has been little attention paid to the subject of culpability on the part of successive PNG governments in matters of environmental damage. This research will contribute to reducing this gap in the literature by focusing on possible motives of the PNG government and its actors which precipitated those decisions and which resulted in environmental degradation. The discussion will examine the likely motivation of the PNG government in its deliberations and decisions and the extent to which corruption and incompetence may have played a role.

abstract: The species distribution model DISTRIB was used to model and map potential suitable habitat of ponderosa pine throughout Arizona under current and six future climate scenarios. Importance Values for each climate scenario were estimated from 24 predictor variables consisting of climate, elevation, soil, and vegetation data within a 4 km grid cell. Two emission scenarios, (A2 (high concentration) and B1 (low concentration)) and three climate models (the Parallel Climate Model, the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, and the HadleyCM3) were used to capture the potential variability among future climates and provide a range of responses from ponderosa pine. Summary tables for federal and state managed lands show the potential change in suitable habitat under the different climate scenarios; while an analysis of three elevational regions explores the potential shift of habitat upslope. According to the climate scenarios, mean annual temperature in Arizona could increase by 3.5% while annual precipitation could decrease by 36% over this century. Results of the DISTRIB model indicate that in response to the projected changes in climate, suitable habitat for ponderosa pine could increase by 13% throughout the state under the HadleyCM3 high scenario or lose 1.1% under the average of the three low scenarios. However, the spatial variability of climate changes will result in gains and losses among the ecoregions and federally and state managed lands. Therefore, alternative practices may need to be considered to limit the loss of suitable habitat in areas identified by the models. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Applied Biological Sciences 2011

abstract: Fish farming is a fast growing industry, which, although necessary to feed an ever growing worldwide population, has its share of negative environmental consequences, including the release of drugs and other waste into the ocean, the use of fish caught from the ocean to feed farm raised fish, and the escape of farm raised fish into natural bodies of water. However, the raising of certain types of fish, such as tilapia, seems to be an environmentally better proposition than raising other types of fish, such as salmon. This paper will explore the problems associated with fish farming, as well as offer a model, based on the literature, and interviews with fish farmers, to make small-scale fish farming both more environmentally, and more economically, sustainable. This paper culminates with a model for small-scale, specifically semi-subsistence, fish farmers. This model emphasizes education of the fish farmers, as well as educators learning from the fish farmers they interact with. The goal of this model is to help these fish farmers become both more environmentally and economically sustainable. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S.Tech Technology 2011

abstract: Phosphorus (P), an essential element for life, is becoming increasingly scarce, and its global management presents a serious challenge. As urban environments dominate the landscape, we need to elucidate how P cycles in urban ecosystems to better understand how cities contribute to — and provide opportunities to solve — problems of P management. The goal of my research was to increase our understanding of urban P cycling in the context of urban resource management through analysis of existing ecological and socio-economic data supplemented with expert interviews in order to facilitate a transition to sustainable P management. Study objectives were to: I) Quantify and map P stocks and flows in the Phoenix metropolitan area and analyze the drivers of spatial distribution and dynamics of P flows; II) examine changes in P-flow dynamics at the urban agricultural interface (UAI), and the drivers of those changes, between 1978 and 2008; III) compare the UAI's average annual P budget to the global agricultural P budget; and IV) explore opportunities for more sustainable P management in Phoenix. Results showed that Phoenix is a sink for P, and that agriculture played a primary role in the dynamics of P cycling. Internal P dynamics at the UAI shifted over the 30-year study period, with alfalfa replacing cotton as the main locus of agricultural P cycling. Results also suggest that the extent of P recycling in Phoenix is proportionally larger than comparable estimates available at the global scale due to the biophysical characteristics of the region and the proximity of various land uses. Uncertainty remains about the effectiveness of current recycling strategies and about best management strategies for the future because we do not have sufficient data to use as basis for evaluation and decision-making. By working in collaboration with practitioners, researchers can overcome some of these data limitations to develop a deeper understanding of the complexities of P dynamics and the range of options available to sustainably manage P. There is also a need to better connect P management with that of other resources, notably water and other nutrients, in order to sustainably manage cities. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Sustainability 2011

abstract: As much as 40% of the world's human population relies on rivers which originate on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) (Xu et al. 2009, Immerzeel et al. 2010). However, the high alpine grasslands where these rivers emanate are at a crossroads. Fed by seasonal monsoon rains and glacial runoff, these rivers' frequent flooding contributes to massive losses of life and property downstream (Varis et al. 2012). Additionally, upstream grasslands, which regulate the flow of these rivers, are considered to be deteriorating (Harris 2010). This thesis examines the regional vulnerability of these rivers and highlights the impacts of several policy responses, finding that both climate change and grassland degradation pose significant challenges to Asia's water security. Additionally, I suggest that many of the responses elicited by policy makers to meet these challenges have failed. One of these policies has been the poisoning of a small, endemic, burrowing mammal and keystone species, the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) (Smith and Foggin 1999). Contrary to their putative classification as a pest (Fan et al. 1999), I show that the plateau pika is instead an ecosystem engineer that actively increases the infiltration rate of water on the QTP with concomitant benefits to both local ecosystems and downstream hydrological processes. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biology 2012

This thesis examines the extent to which the Karuk Tribe has participated in natural resource management regulatory processes, using the Klamath River Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) process as a particular case study for evaluation. One of the most effective ways that the Tribe participates in the TMDL process is through the rigorous adoption of the technical tools of regulatory science. Collaboration with nontribal organizations is also used to build capacity for participation. The Tribe’s active participation in the TMDL process has in turn shaped the process, making it more inclusive of tribal values and traditional knowledge, improving overall scientific inquiry, and facilitating increased cooperation among tribal and non-tribal resource managers. At the same time, the Tribe’s participation in the process remains “uneven,” underscoring the ongoing challenge of making regulatory processes that recognize the legitimacy of tribal knowledge and values.

The broad scope of this research concerns the field of conflict and dispute resolution, also referred to as alternative dispute resolution (ADR). ADR practices have developed in both executive and judicial branches of government since the early 1900’s. The goal of this paper is to evaluate how ADR practitioners working in water-related civil litigation can apply facilitative practices prior, during, and after the proceeding to reduce harm, cost, and time of litigation and increase the overall satisfaction of the parties when the proceeding has been resolved. To achieve this goal, a framework is constructed and applied to a case study in Cascade Locks, Oregon. This framework is not a way to avoid a court proceeding through use of alternative dispute resolution; instead this paper seeks to add facilitative practices to a civil litigation process to make the entire process more efficient to the parties and effective in resolving the dispute.

LIMA, José Vinícius Leite. Ocorrência de bactérias diazotróficas em cactáceas nativas do semiárido e seus efeitos no crescimento de mudas de Mandacaru. 2013. 38 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em ecologia e recursos naturais)- Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2013. / Submitted by Elineudson Ribeiro (elineudsonr@gmail.com) on 2016-05-20T19:15:44Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_jvllima.pdf: 711329 bytes, checksum: 03334107e0ced54f2736505d2e5231af (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-05-27T20:38:03Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_jvllima.pdf: 711329 bytes, checksum: 03334107e0ced54f2736505d2e5231af (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-27T20:38:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_jvllima.pdf: 711329 bytes, checksum: 03334107e0ced54f2736505d2e5231af (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / The presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria has been observed in various plant species, including legumes, grasses, and fruit plants. It has been hypothesized that the cactus from semiarid region naturally establishes association with endophytic bacteria and take advantages from plant-bacteria interaction in the initial growth phase. This study aimed to isolate and characterize diazotrophic from cactus in semiarid and evaluate their contribution on the growth of Mandacaru seedlings. The survey of occurrence of diazotrophs was held in December 2011, collecting samples from roots and aerial parts of Mandacaru (Cereus jamacaru) and Coroa-de-frade (Melocactus zehntneri) at the Ecological Station of Aiuaba, state of Ceará, Brazil. The presence of endophytic bacteria was confirmed in native cacti and bacterial strains characterized by the physiology of growth on artificial medium, on condition of biological nitrogen fixation. Representative strains from homogeneous bacterial groups were used to inoculate Mandacaru seedlings. After six months of growing in greenhouse, the Mandacaru seedlings showed similar growth independently of bacterial inoculation. All bacteria obtained cacti showed ability showed ability to solubilize inorganic phosphate in medium Pikoskaya. The endophytes obtained differ in growth condition under nitrogen fixation and by using different carbon sources. The seven bacterial strains tested did not affect significantly the initial growth of Mandacaru in substrates with rice hulls partially burned, vermiculite and humus. / A presença de bactérias fixadoras de nitrogênio atmosférico tem sido evidenciada em diferentes espécies, incluindo leguminosas, gramíneas, frutíferas, entre outras plantas. Tem-se por hipótese que as cactáceas estabelecem naturalmente associação com as bactérias diazotróficas endofíticas e podem se beneficiar da interação planta-bactéria na fase de crescimento inicial. Este estudo teve por objetivo isolar e caracterizar bactérias diazotróficas associadas às cactáceas do semiárido e avaliar sua contribuição no crescimento de mudas de Mandacaru. A análise da ocorrência de bactérias diazotróficas foi realizada em dezembro de 2011, coletando-se amostras de raízes de partes aéreas de Cereus jamacaru e Melocactus zehntneri, na Estação Ecológica (ESEC) de Aiuaba, Ceará, Brasil. A presença das bactérias endofíticas foi confirmada nas cactáceas nativas e as estirpes bacterianas caracterizadas pela fisiologia de crescimento em meios artificiais, sob condição de fixação biológica de nitrogênio. Representantes destes grupos bacterianos foram inoculados em mudas micropropagadas de Mandacaru. Após seis meses de cultivo em casa de vegetação, os Mandacarus apresentaram crescimento similar independente da inoculação com endófitos. Todas as bactérias isoladas apresentaram habilidade em solubilizar fosfato inorgânico no meio Pikoskaya. As bactérias endofíticas oriundas dos cactos nativos diferem na forma de crescimento sob condição de fixação biológica de nitrogênio e pelo uso de fontes de carbono. As sete estirpes bacterianas testadas não influenciaram o crescimento inicial de Mandacarus em substrato composto de casca de arroz parcialmente carbonizada, vermiculita e vermicomposto.