Computer intrusions and attacks compromise individuals, companies and communities. Whilst it is clear that computer and information security studies point to a generalised increase in the number and sophistication of computer security attacks over the past decade and that nations now entirely rely upon computer systems, insufficient attention is paid to the protection of those systems. Computer data and network systems affect our everyday lives, from the supply-chain software that ensures that the shelves are stocked at the supermarket, to systems that manage finance and share markets. Compromises of computer security are, therefore, rightly seen both as an attack on those individual entities whose systems and information are compromised, and as a communal attack upon the people and organisations that rely upon or use computer systems, both directly and indirectly. The aim of this thesis is to give an analysis of computer system security, information protections and the legal ramifications of computer security compromise, notably, data security compromise in Australia. Ultimately, the aim is to address three overlapping questions: what are the ways in which systems are breached, what are the legal consequences of a breach and are those consequences adequate? This paper looks at the underlying technology and relationships between actors involved in the majority of security compromises and looks at the common factors in how systems and networks are attacked and actors damaged. The paper then goes on to look at criminal liability for security compromises and shows how a criminal analysis feeds into the proper civil law consideration of the topic. Finally, the paper looks at data security through the lens of privacy. Ultimately, this paper concludes that Australia is inconsistent in its legal responses to information security incidents. Such variations are based on the area of law being discussed and dependent on the breach methodology and outcome. The criminal law provides the most current and potent legal protection any business or individual has had in this field. This is followed by statutory privacy law which provides a narrow degree of coverage and provides only a weak conciliation process for addressing data security issues. Finally, common law and equity provide the most uncertain commercial remedies for those that suffer data security breach. This paper concludes that present protections are inadequate and uncertain, and that change is required.

L’indagine svolta si è proposta di realizzare un’analisi sistematica dell’illecito della persona giuridica, così come delineato dal decreto legislativo 231/2001, con lo scopo di ricercare, da un lato, un ordine metodologico funzionale alla lettura critica del concetto di colpa organizzativa e di evidenziare, dall’altro, i tratti di eccentricità – o di continuità strutturale – rispetto al modello della colpa penale pensato per la persona fisica. Il lavoro – che si è avvalso altresì del raffronto con la nozione di corporate criminal liability elaborata nell’ordinamento inglese – ha dimostrato come l’illecito della corporation ricalchi, benché con le peculiarità proprie del paradigma, le caratteristiche strutturali del tipo colposo d’evento, presentandosi anzitutto come inadempimento di un dovere prudenziale al quale segue la verificazione di un fatto lesivo in cui si concretizza il rischio specifico che lo standard cautelare era volto a scongiurare. All’analisi degli elementi costitutivi dell’illecito della persona giuridica hanno fatto seguito alcune proposte di revisione del sistema, sulla base delle problematiche e degli spunti emersi in relazione al meccanismo ascrittivo della responsabilità, ai criteri di verificabilità empirica del modello organizzativo, nonché all’ambito di estensione soggettiva della disciplina. / This research proposal aims to analyse the specific paradigm of corporate criminal responsibility with special regard to its consistency with the requirements of criminal negligence. The analysis has shown that the corporate crime foreseen by Legislative Decree No. 231/2001 should be considered as a “special” offense of negligence which essentially acts as a breach of a precautionary duty: namely, a violation of a rule with precautionary objectives that imposes to the corporation the adoption of compliance programs aimed to prevent the occurrence of harmful events. The research aspires – from a de jure condendo viewpoint and by using a comparative approach focused on the English system of corporate criminal liability – to elaborate some reform proposals in order to modulate the culpability criteria on the type of offense that may actually occur and in relation to the judicial determination of adequacy of compliance programs.

Orientador: Maria Ângela Rodrigues Alves de Andrade / Resumo: O objetivo desse estudo foi caracterizar e entender o problema da negligência doméstica contra a criança, tendo como universo da pesquisa a instituição Berçário Dona Nina. Para esse estudo, buscamos compreender as relações familiares, por acreditarmos serem determinantes para a questão da negligência. Para a coleta de dados, utilizamos a pesquisa documental e a entrevista semi - estruturada, segundo método de análise de conteúdo. Realizamos o levantamento dos prontuários das crianças atendidas no Berçário do ano de 1999 a 2002 e entrevistamos sete mulheres, mães de crianças em recuperação da saúde no Berçário no ano de 2003. Através da análise dos dados obtidos, sistematizamos categorias de estudo referentes à composição familiar e relação pais e filhos, analisando vínculo afetivo e responsabilidade; condição de vida e trabalho das famílias e a história familiar. Nossas análises apontaram para as dificuldades relacionadas à abordagem da questão da negligência doméstica, que por geralmente ocorrer no âmbito das relações pessoais e familiares, dificulta sua detecção e intervenção. Os dados deste trabalho apontam, que a questão da negligência está intimamente relacionada com as condições estruturais da sociedade e não raras vezes, a família que apresenta comportamento negligente, foi e é também negligenciada pela sua família de origem e pela sociedade. / Abstract: The objective of this work was to characterize and understand the problem of the domestic negligence against a child as a whole of the research the institution "Berçário Dona Nina" (Nursery Dona Nina). For this study we tried to understand the kinships, because we believe they are decisive to the question of negligence. For the data gathering we used documentary research and the semi-structured interview according to the content analysis method. We checked the registers of children being cared at "Berçário Dona Nina" from 1999 to 2002 and we interviewed seven women, mothers of children under health recovery at the nursery in 2003. Through the analysis of the obtained data, we systemized categories related to family make-up and parent-children relationship, analysis affectionate relationship and responsibility; condition of life and work of the families and family history. Our analyses pointed out to difficulties related to the approach of the question of domestic negligence and because it occurs in family and people's relationships, it becomes hard to detect and intervene it. The data of the present work point that the question of negligence is intimately related to the structural conditions of society and not rare, the family presenting negligent behavior was and is also neglected by their origin and by society. / Mestre

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo apresentar o Jogo das Relações Intrafamiliares (JRI), ainda inédito no Brasil, no estudo dos vínculos de crianças negligenciadas. A Negligência Infantil Familiar (NIF) é a modalidade de maior incidência dentre os tipos de Violência Doméstica contra Crianças e Adolescentes, apesar de ser a menos estudada, o que torna necessário um maior número de pesquisas, para se conhecer as consequências dessa violência ao longo da vida de crianças vitimizadas. Neste trabalho, a Negligência Infantil Familiar foi definida como uma omissão das relações interpessoais e de comportamentos de cuidado ou proteção das primeiras figuras significativas de uma criança: seus pais. Já é sabido que a NIF gera impossibilidades e adversidades ao desenvolvimento saudável de uma criança, bem como angústias intensas e medos que a impossibilita de falar diretamente sobre o trauma sofrido. Neste sentido, o JRI foi desenvolvido, por pesquisadoras argentinas, para facilitar a comunicação da criança sobre seus conflitos e angústias com relação ao seu contexto familiar, cenário da violência sofrida. O JRI consiste em um jogo de encaixe, com figuras de personagens que representam diferentes papéis familiares. É solicitado à criança que construa duas famílias a sua família e uma família qualquer e, após cada construção, é realizado um inquérito composto por oito perguntas. O método da pesquisa consistiu na análise clínica qualitativa por meio do delineamento de Estudo de Casos Múltiplos. Os participantes da pesquisa foram divididos em dois grupos, totalizando vinte crianças entre quatro e seis anos, das quais: dez foram vítimas de Negligência Infantil Familiar e dez crianças sem suspeita de terem sofrido algum tipo de violência doméstica. Foram utilizados os seguintes instrumentos: Hora de Jogo Diagnóstica e Jogo das Relações Intrafamiliares, de modo a poder comparar os resultados encontrados entre os dois grupos participantes, para, assim, averiguar o potencial do JRI no estudo das relações vinculares de crianças neglicenciadas. A interpretação do material, levantado em cada instrumento, foi embasada na teoria do desenvolvimento de D.W. Winnicott, a partir de referenciais de análise, desenvolvidos especificamente para estes instrumentos, quando aplicados em crianças vítimas de violência doméstica. Como resultados o Jogo das Relações Intrafamiliares demonstrou possuir grandes possibilidades no estudo do vínculo de crianças negligenciadas, pois permitiu que as crianças falassem de suas famílias de maneira lúdica e de modo simples, possibilitando que expressassem como suas relações intrafamiliares foram construídas, qual o lugar que estas atribuem a si mesmas e como percebem os outros membros de sua família. Sendo possível, a partir desses dados, compreender como constroem suas relações vinculares / This research aimed to present the Play of Intra-family Relationships, unprecedented in Brazil, in the study of neglected children\'s entail. The Neglect is the mode with the highest incidence among the types of Domestic Violence against Children and Adolescents, despite being the least studied, what a more research is necessary, to know the consequences of this violence over the lives of victimized children. In this work, the Neglect was defined as a failure of interpersonal relationships and caring or protection behaviors of the first significant figures of a child: their parents. It is known that the Neglect generates impossibilities and adversity to the healthy development of a child victim of violence and intense anxieties and fears that makes it impossible to speak directly about the trauma suffered. In this sense, the Play of Intra-family Relationships, was developed by Argentine researchers, to facilitate the child\'s communication about their conflicts and anxieties with regard to his family context, the violence suffered scenario. The Play of Intra-family Relationships consists of a set of plug, with figures of characters representing different family roles. She asked the child to build two families - his family and any family - and after each construction, we conducted a survey consists of eight questions. The research method consisted of qualitative clinical analysis through the Multiple Case Study. The participants were divided into two groups, totaling twenty children between four and six years, of which: Ten were victims of Neglect and ten children did not suffer any kind of domestic violence. The following instruments were used: Diagnostic Play Time and Play of intra-family Relationships in order to be able to compare the results between the two participating groups, to thereby ascertain the potential Play of Intra-family Relationships in the study of neglected childrens entail The interpretation of the material raised in each instrument is grounded in the theory of development of D.W. Winnicott, from analysis frameworks developed specifically for these instruments, when applied to children victims of domestic violence. As a result the Play of Intrafamily Relationships has demonstrated great possibilities in the study of the relationship of neglected children, as it allowed the children spoke of their families in a playful manner and easily, enabling them to express as their intra-family relationships were built, what place they attribute to themselves and how they perceive the other members of his family. If possible, from these data, understand how they build their interpersonal relations

The current research sought to clarify the diverging relationships between counterfactual thinking and hindsight bias observed in the literature thus far. In a non-legal context, Roese and Olson (1996) found a positive relationship between counterfactuals and hindsight bias, such that counterfactual mutations that undid the outcome also increased participants’ ratings of the outcome’s a priori likelihood. Further, they determined that this relationship is mediated by causal attributions about the counterfactually mutated antecedent event. Conversely, in the context of a civil lawsuit, Robbennolt and Sobus (1997) found that the relationship between counterfactual thinking and hindsight bias is negative. The current research sought to resolve the conflicting findings in the literature within a legal context. In Experiment One, the manipulation of the normality of the defendant’s target behavior, designed to manipulate participants’ counterfactual thoughts about said behavior, did moderate the hindsight effect of outcome knowledge on mock jurors’ judgments of the foreseeability of that outcome as well as their negligence verdicts. Although I predicted that counterfactual thinking would increase, or exacerbate, the hindsight bias, as found by Roese and Olson (1996), my results provided some support for Robbenolt and Sobus’s (1997) finding that counterfactual thinking decreases the hindsight bias. Behavior normality did not moderate the hindsight effect of outcome knowledge in Experiment Two, nor did causal proximity in Experiment Three. Additionally, my hypothesis that self-referencing may be an effective hindsight debiasing technique received little support across the three experiments. Although both the self-referencing instructions and self-report measure consistently decreased mock jurors’ likelihood of finding the defendant negligent, and self-referencing instructions decreased their foreseeability ratings in studies two and three, the self-referencing manipulation did not interact with outcome knowledge to moderate a hindsight bias effect on either foreseeability or negligence judgments. The consistent pattern of results across the three experiments, however, suggests that self-referencing may be an effective technique in reducing the likelihood of negligence verdicts.

The purpose and object of this thesis was to investigate and research the utility and effect of the application of the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur to medical negligence cases. More particularly, it was endeavoured to establish conclusively that the approach of the South African courts that the doctrine can never find application to medical negligence cases is untenable and out of touch with modern approaches adopted by other Common law countries. It was further endeavoured to provide a theoretical and practical legal framework within which the application of the doctrine to medical negligence cases and related matters can develop in South Africa, in future. The research includes a comprehensive comparative survey of the diverging approaches with regard to the application of the doctrine to medical negligence cases between the legal systems of South Africa, England and the United States of America. The most important conclusions which the investigation revealed were the following: 1. There are substantial differences with regard to the application of the doctrine between the three legal systems, with regard to the requirements for, the nature of, the procedural effect on the onus of proof and the nature of the defendant's explanation in rebuttal. These differences are further compounded by differences between the principles enunciated by the courts and the opinions of legal commentators on the subject. 2. Whereas the approach adopted by the South African courts with regard to the application of the doctrine to medical negligence cases is outdated and untenable, more legal clarity, however, exists in South Africa with regard to the application of the doctrine to personal injury cases in general, so that the existing principles which are applied provide a structure within which the extension of its application to medical accidents can be readily accommodated. 3. The current approach adopted by England, where provision is made for the application of the doctrine to obvious medical blunders as well as more complex matters, where the plaintiff is permitted to buttress evidence relating to the res with expert medical evidence, commends itself for acceptance. Such an approach not only alleviates the plaintiff's burden of proof but also provides adequate protection to the defendant by endorsing the principle of honest doubt in the form of letting the defendant prevail if he comes to court and explains that despite due care, untoward results do sometimes occur especially in the practice of medicine. 4. The approach adopted by the majority of jurisdictions in the United States of America is probably too liberal and unstructured so that it may in some instances result in the imposition of liability in medical context, in a arbitrary fashion. 5. Constitutional principles such as procedural equality, policy and other considerations support the extension of the application of the doctrine to medical negligence cases in South Africa. There are also substantial grounds for advancing a persuasive argument that the majority judgment in the Van Wyk v Lewis case should be overruled and that the general application of the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur should not only be extended to cases of medical negligence, but also to related legal procedures which follow a medical accident such as medical inquests, criminal prosecutions and disciplinary inquiries instituted by the Health Professions Council of South Africa. / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Public Law / LLD / unrestricted

The criminal law has been critiqued as an unsuitable system to regulate adverse medical events (AME) because the unintentional nature of AME renders it incompatible with the penal objectives of the criminal law. This project uses an interpretivist approach to examine how blameworthiness is constructed in criminal cases involving AME. Situated within a contextual constructionist paradigm, and utilizing a theoretical framework that draws on legal pragmatism, symbolic interactionism, Habermasian thought, and Goffmanian frame analysis, this project employs a case study approach to explore how appellate courts construct AME as a product of fate or agency. The British case of Bawa-Garba v. R. (2016) and the Canadian case of R. v. Javanmardi (2019) are analysed using thematic analysis. It is concluded that the majority of the Supreme Court of Canada in Javanmardi constructed the AME within the realm of fate, contrasting the minority in Javanmardi and full panel of the England and Wales Court of Appeal in Bawa-Garba which constructed the AME within the realm of agency. It is also concluded that the majority in Javanmardi utilised pragmatic adjudication to determine blameworthiness. It is suggested that these findings could reduce fear of criminal liability among Canadian health care professionals. Future research is suggested to examine the legal cultures underlying this variation, critically explore the intersection of race and criminal prosecution of AME, and apply structural violence as a theoretical frame to further interrogate AME as a systemic failure.

The study of criminal law by lawyers has traditionally been confined to a consideration of general principles of criminal law and of specific crimes, the material or substantive criminal law.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Public Health)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Background: The number of occupational injuries in manufacturing industries continues to rise despite safety regulations. Occupational injuries range from the spine, hands, head, lungs, eyes, skeleton and skin. Negligence, improper use of Personal Protective Equipment, lack of experience and age are some of the factors leading to occupational injuries. Even though there are measures to prevent these occupational injuries, the number of injuries amongst manufacturing industries keeps rising and the causes need to be identified. Objective(s): The purpose of the study was to develop a training programme for manufacturing industries in the Polokwane municipality. Methods: A qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and contextual design was used for the study. Five categories of manufacturing industries were visited where 22 participants were interviewed using a voice recorder until data saturation was reached. There were 4 managers, 6 supervisors and 12 general workers. Member checking was done to verify and clarify transcribed information. Field notes were also taken for non-verbal responses. Data were analysed using Tesch’s and Clarke and Braun open coding method following the eight steps. Results: The findings of the study indicated that hazards in the physical work environment of manufacturing industries in the Polokwane municipality contributed to most occupational accidents. It was also found that negligence, incorrect provision of PPE by management, improper use of PPE by workers, and lack of safety training were also contributors to workplace accidents. Commitment to health and safety by industries management was also found to be lacking and played a role in some occupational accidents in the manufacturing industries. Conclusions: The study concludes that lack of health and safety training, negligence, and commitment by those in management compromised the health and safety of workers

CNS participó de la concepción del estudio y recolectó los datos. SAG, RECP y KCJ hicieron la revisión crítica. CNS y TCJ realizaron el análisis e interpretación de los datos. CNS redactó el borrador del artículo. Todos los autores aprobaron la versión final del artículo. / Objetivos. Determinar las características de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica, a partir de los informes periciales emitidos en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio transversal donde se incluyeron todos los informes periciales emitidos del 2005 al 2010, en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Se realizó el análisis descriptivo de cada una de las variables. Resultados. El 60,3% (495/821) de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica fueron valoradas como acuerdo a la lex artis; el 16,8% (138/821) no acuerdo a la lex artis; en 13% (107/821) de los casos no se pudo emitir conclusiones, y en 9,9% (81/821) las conclusiones del informe pericial no incluyen una valoración del acto médico. Los casos donde la lesión se atribuyó al propio proceso de la enfermedad correspondieron al 80,9% (502/620), y los que se consideraron resultado de la asistencia sanitaria al 19,0% (118/620). La distribución de la causa de la lesión según el cumplimiento de la lex artis mostró diferencias significativas. Conclusiones. En nuestro país, las denuncias por presunta responsabilidad médica se encuentran en aumento, predominantemente en las especialidades quirúrgicas, donde la probabilidad de ser considerado como un acto médico no adecuado a la lex artis es mayor. Asimismo en un porcentaje importante de casos no se llegan a emitir conclusiones valorativas sobre el acto médico. / Objectives.To determine the characteristics of the criminal complaints claining medical professional liability, based on the expert reports issued by the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. Materials and methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out, which included all the expert reports issued between 2005 and 2010 at the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. A descriptive analysis of each of the variables was performed. Results. 60.3% (495/821) of the criminal complaints for medical professional liability were valued as being in accordance with the lex artis while16.8% (138/821) were not in accordance with the lex artis. In 13% (107/821) of the cases, conclusions could not be drawn;in 9.9% (81/821) of the cases, the conclusions in the expert report did not include an valuations of the medical act.The cases in which the injury was attributed to the process of the disease itself accounted for 80.9% (502/620), and those in which in the injury was considered a result of the health care received were 19.0% (118/620). The distribution of the cause of the injury based on accordance with the lex artis showed significant differences. Conclusions. In our country, the number of claims for claimed medical liability is increasing, predominantly in relation to surgical specialties, where a medical act is more likely to be considered not in accordance with the lex artis. In addition, in a significant percentage of cases, no conclusions are drawn about the medical act.