Staphylococcus aureus causes chronic bacterial pneumonias that are resistant to antimicrobial treatment and carry a high burden of morbidity and mortality. S. aureus persists in the lung by assuming adaptive phenotypes like biofilms, which protect the bacteria from antibiotics and host bacterial clearance. It is well established that staphylococcal adaptation to the host is often driven by immune pressure, but the specific factors that drive S. aureus persistence in the setting of chronic lung infection have not been fully elucidated. One of the critical processes that drives immune cell function is metabolism. In addition to fueling the bioenergetic needs of the cell and competing with pathogens for key resources, immune cell metabolism also generates key regulatory metabolites that can either bolster or dampen inflammation in a process known as immunometabolism. The role of these regulatory immune metabolites in staphylococcal pneumonias has not been explored. This thesis addresses the hypothesis that immune metabolites play an important role in the pathogenesis of S. aureus pneumonias, not only by regulating immune cell function but also by promoting bacterial adaptation to the lung. In Chapter 1, we examine the current understanding of the pathogenesis of staphylococcal lung infections and review the role of immune metabolites in regulating inflammation. In Chapter 2, we describe the methods we used to test our hypothesis. In Chapter 3, we define the immunometabolic response to S. aureus in the lung, identifying the anti-inflammatory metabolite itaconate as one of the most upregulated metabolites in the infected airway. We determine that itaconate production is triggered by bacterial PAMPs, and is driven by host mitochondrial stress in response to bacterial metabolism. We also discover that neutrophils are the main source of itaconate during staphylococcal pneumonia. In Chapter 4, we investigate the impact of itaconate on neutrophils, the major immune cell responsible for controlling S. aureus infection. We establish that itaconate impedes bacterial clearance and limits neutrophil bacterial killing. This occurs through two major mechanisms, including inhibition of neutrophil glycolysis, which impairs neutrophil survival during infection, and inhibition of the oxidative burst. We find that neutrophil itaconate production is still beneficial to the host, as it promotes protective, anti-oxidant and anti-cell death pathways in the epithelial and endothelial cells that are critical for respiration. In Chapter 5, we investigate the impact of itaconate on the metabolic adaptation of S. aureus to the host. We use longitudinal clinical isolates from a patient with chronic staphylococcal pneumonia to define how clonal strains adapt to the inflamed, itaconate-laden lung. The isolates demonstrate that there is selection for strains with reduced bioenergetics but increased biofilm formation. These metabolic changes are recapitulated by exposing a non-adapted S. aureus strain to itaconate, which inhibits staphylococcal bioenergetics via glycolysis, and causes increased utilization of pathways that produce biofilms. Our data demonstrate that the host immune metabolite itaconate promotes bacterial persistence during staphylococcal pneumonia by impeding bacterial clearance and promoting bacterial biofilm formation. In Chapter 6, we discuss the potential impact of these findings, particularly on the current efforts to develop itaconate as an anti-inflammatory therapeutic, and offer directions for future studies that can further explore how metabolic pathways that normally control inflammation can influence pathogen persistence in the host.

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Le rôle des neutrophiles dans la réponse immunitaire innée est bien connu. Ils résident dans le sang et ont une durée de vie limitée à quelques heures. Suite à une infection, ils quittent le flux sanguin et se dirigent vers les sites inflammatoires en réponse à des chimiokines produites par des cellules endothéliales et des fibroblastes. Au niveau du site d’inflammation, les neutrophiles phagocytent et éliminent les pathogènes extracellulaires, et produisent des cytokines inflammatoires. <p><p>Des travaux récents montrent que les neutrophiles peuvent également jouer un rôle dans l’immunité adaptative. En effet, ils ont la capacité de transporter des antigènes vers les ganglions lymphatiques, d’induire la différenciation des lymphocytes et d’influencer la réponse immune adaptative par la production de cytokines. <p><p>La fonction des neutrophiles dans l’induction et/ou la régulation de la réponse adaptative requiert l’interaction entre ceux-ci et d’autres populations cellulaires, telles que les cellules dendritiques et les lymphocytes. <p>Nous avons donc examiné la localisation des neutrophiles au niveau de la rate dans des conditions basales ou inflammatoires. D’une manière générale, nos résultats montrent que, en cas d’infection, les neutrophiles migrent vers la pulpe blanche de la rate et se localisent en contact étroit avec les lymphocytes T. Ce phénomène de migration est dépendant des molécules CD14 et MyD88 et corrèle avec l’augmentation de l’expression des chimiokines CXCL1 et 2, ainsi qu’avec la diminution de l’expression du récepteur CXCR2 à la surface des neutrophiles. <p>Cependant, au niveau de la cavité péritonéale, le recrutement des neutrophiles est augmenté en absence de la molécule CD14. Nos résultats montrent que la migration des neutrophiles, dans les organes lymphoïdes et non lymphoïdes, est dirigée par des mécanismes différents. <p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The immune system initiates tissue repair following injury. In response to sterile tissue injury, neutrophils infiltrate the tissue to remove tissue debris and subsequently undergo apoptosis. Proper clearance of apoptotic neutrophils in the tissue by recruited macrophages, in a process termed efferocytosis, is critical to facilitate the resolution of inflammation and tissue repair. However, the events leading to suppression of sterile inflammation following efferocytosis, and the contribution of other innate cell types are not clearly defined in an in vivo setting. Using a sterile mouse peritonitis model, we identified IL-4 production from efferocytosing macrophages in the peritoneum that activate invariant NKT cells to produce cytokines including IL-4 and IL-13. Importantly, IL-4 from macrophages functions in autocrine and paracrine circuits to promote alternative activation of peritoneal exudate macrophages and augment type-2 cytokine production from NKT cells to suppress inflammation. The increased peritonitis in mice deficient in IL-4, NKT cells, or IL-4Ra expression on myeloid cells suggested that each is a key component for resolution of sterile inflammation. The phagocyte NADPH oxidase, a multi-subunit enzyme complex we demonstrated to require a physical interaction between the Rac GTPase and the oxidase subunit gp91phox for generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), is required for production of ROS within macrophage phagosomes containing ingested apoptotic cells. In mice with X-linked chronic granulomatous disease (X-CGD) that lack gp91phox, efferocytosing macrophages were unable to produce ROS and were defective in activating iNKT during sterile peritonitis, resulting in enhanced and prolonged inflammation. Thus, efferocytosis-induced IL-4 production and activation of IL-4-producing iNKT cells by macrophages are immunomodulatory events in an innate immune circuit required to resolve sterile inflammation and promote tissue repair.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Endothelial Colony Forming Cells (ECFCs) are highly proliferative endothelial progenitor cells with clonal proliferative potential and in vivo vessel forming ability. While endothelial cells have been derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPS) or human embryonic stem cells (hES), they are not highly proliferative and require ectopic expression of a TGFβ inhibitor to restrict plasticity. Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) has been reported to identify the emergence of endothelial precursor cells from human and mouse ES cells undergoing endothelial differentiation. However, the protocol used in that study was not well defined, used uncharacterized neuronal induction reagents in the culture medium, and failed to fully characterize the endothelial cells derived. We hypothesize that NRP-1 expression is critical for the emergence of stable endothelial cells with ECFC properties from hES cells. We developed a novel serum and feeder free defined endothelial differentiation protocol to induce stable endothelial cells possessing cells with cord blood ECFC-like properties from hES cells. We have shown that Day 12 hES cell-derived endothelial cells express the endothelial markers CD31+ NRP-1+, exhibit high proliferative potential at a single cell level, and display robust in vivo vessel forming ability similar to that of cord blood-derived ECFCs. The efficient production of the ECFCs from hES cells is 6 logs higher with this protocol than any previously published method. These results demonstrate progress towards differentiating ECFC from hES and may provide patients with stable autologous cells capable of repairing injured, dysfunctional, or senescent vasculature if these findings can be repeated with hiPS.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Vaccinia virus (VV) is the prototypical member of the orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family, and is currently being evaluated as a vector for vaccine development and cancer cell-targeting therapy. Despite the importance of studying poxvirus effects on the human immune system, reports of the direct interactions between poxviruses and primary human leukocytes (PHLs) are limited. We studied the specific molecular events that determine the VV tropism for major PHL subsets including monocytes, B cells, neutrophils, NK cells, and T cells. We found that VV exhibited an extremely strong bias towards binding and infecting monocytes among PHLs. VV binding strongly co-localized with lipid rafts on the surface of these cell types, even when lipid rafts were relocated to the cell uropods upon cell polarization. In humans, monocytic and professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) have so far only been reported to exhibit abortive infections with VV. We found that monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), including granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-polarized M1 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-polarized M2, were permissive to VV replication. The majority of virions produced in MDMs were extracellular enveloped virions (EEV). Visualization of infected MDMs revealed the formation of VV factories, actin tails, virion-associated branching structures and cell linkages, indicating that infected MDMs are able to initiate de novo synthesis of viral DNA and promote virus release. Classical activation of MDMs by LPS plus IFN-γ stimulation caused no effect on VV replication, whereas alternative activation of MDMs by IL-10 or LPS plus IL-1β treatment significantly decreased VV production. The IL-10-mediated suppression of VV replication was largely due to STAT3 activation, as a STAT3 inhibitor restored virus production to levels observed without IL-10 stimulation. In conclusion, our data indicate that PHL subsets express and share VV protein receptors enriched in lipid rafts. We also demonstrate that primary human macrophages are permissive to VV replication. After infection, MDMs produced EEV for long-range dissemination and also form structures associated with virions which may contribute to cell-cell spread.