An electropolymerizable zinc porphyrin carrying eight entities of peripheral bithiophene, 4 was newly designed and synthesized. In this design, the bithiophene entities were separated by a biphenyl spacer to minimize ground state interactions perturbing porphyrin π-electronic structure. By multi-cyclic voltammetry, thin-films of 4 were formed on transparent FTO electrode and were characterized by optical, electrochemical and STM measurements. Further, the ability of zinc porphyrin in 4 to axially coordinate phenyl imidazole functionalized fullerene, C60Im both in solution and on the film interface was performed and characterized. Fluorescence quenching of zinc porphyrin both in solution and in the film was observed upon binding of C60Im. Femtosecond transient absorption studies revealed excited state charge separation for the dyad in solution wherein the measured rate of charge separation, kCS and charge recombination, kCR were found to be 2 x 1010 s−1 and 1.2 x 109 s−1, respectively. In contrast, transient absorption studies performed on the dyad in the film were suggestive of energy transfer with minimal contributions from electron transfer. The present study brings out the importance of modulating photochemical reactivity of donor-acceptor dyad in film as compared to that in solution. The electro- and photocatalytic reduction of molecular nitrogen to ammonia (nitrogen reduction reaction, NRR) is of broad interest as an environmentally- and energy-friendly alternative to the Haber–Bosch process for agricultural and emerging energy applications. Herein, we review our recent findings from collaborative electrochemistry/surface science/theoretical studies regarding transition metal oxides, oxynitrides and sulfides as NRR catalysts. We found that, for all metal oxides and oxynitrides specifically, there is no Mars–van Krevelen mechanism and that the reduction of lattice nitrogen and N2 to NH3 occurs by parallel reaction mechanisms at O-ligated metal sites without incorporation of N into the oxide lattice. Additionally, the results highlight the importance of both O-ligation and the importance of N in stabilizing the transition metal cation in an intermediate oxidation state, for effective N≡N bond activation. For transition metal sulfides, various exfoliation treatments are known to yield Sulfur vacancies and DFT calculations corroborate N2 binding to S-vacancies, with substantial π-backbonding to activate dinitrogen. Most of our NRR catalysts were selective to ammonia production without appreciable competing production of H2.

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The electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) is of considerable interest due to its potential for less energy intensive and environmentally friendly ammonia production which is critical for agricultural and clean energy applications. However, the selectivity of NRR compared to the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) often poses challenges for various catalysts, including Earth-abundant transition metal oxynitrides like Ti, V, and Co. In this work, a comparative analysis of the selectivity of these three metal oxynitrides was conducted, each having different metal oxophilicities. A combination of electrochemical, surface characterizations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were employed to directly assess NRR and HER activities under the same reaction conditions. Results show that cobalt oxynitrides exhibit NRR activity at pH 10, involving the electrochemical reduction of both lattice-bound nitrogen and dissolved N2, although more HER activity was observed. In contrast, vanadium oxynitride films displayed HER inactivity at pH 7 and 10 but demonstrated NRR activity at pH 7, while titanium oxynitrides were active at pH 3.2 but inactive under neutral and basic pH conditions. These comprehensive studies highlight substantial variations in HER and NRR selectivity based on transition metal oxophilicity/azaphilicity, indicating distinct mechanisms governing NRR and HER mechanisms.

Transition metal carbides (TMCs) are of increasing interest for catalytic processes. Their performance and stability under common oxidative conditions in catalytic reactions are crucial for several applications, including catalysis and electrochemical reactions. In this work, we report a detailed XPS study of the interactions of stoichiometric NbC and TaC surfaces with common oxidizing agents like O2 and H2O, which are important media in many chemical processes. Experimental results showed that NbC reacts with O2 to produce Nb sub-oxrides, while TaC is inert to O2 exposure. TaC surfaces are more sensitive to H2O vapor, with a greater surface oxidation and hydroxylation. Atmospheric oxidation of NbC and TaC was also studied, and results showed that both films oxidized yielding to the formation of Nb2O5 and Ta2O5, hydroxylated/ oxide carbon species, and some adventurous carbon build-up. TMCs are catalytically active in many reactions, especially those involving electrochemical nitrogen reduction reactions (NRR) to ammonia. Experimental and DFT calculations were used to provide insight on how carbide surface structures change electrochemically and how that evolution relates to NRR activity. Results showed that NbC has NRR activity at pH 3.2 after immersion in 0.3 M NaOH, leaving niobium suboxides. However, photoemission data showed that the Nb2O5 overlayer is restored after polarization to -1.3 V vs. Ag/AgCl, inhibiting NRR activity. TaC, on the other hand, is inactive for NRR at potentials more positive than -1.0 V, as NaOH treatment fails to remove the Ta2O5 surface layer induced by ambient exposure. The study also found that the formation and stabilization of intermediate oxidation states on the surface of transition metal ions are crucial for N≡N bond activation and NRR activity.

Printed circuit board manufacturing involves subtractive copper (Cu) etching where fine features are developed with a specific spatial resolution and etch profile of the Cu interconnects. A UV-Vis ATR metrology, to characterize the chemical transitions, has been developed to monitor the state of the bath by an in-situ measurement. This method provides a direct correlation of the Cu etch bath and was able to predict a 35% lower etch rate that was not predicted by the three current monitoring methods (ORP, specific gravity, and conductivity). Application of this UV-Vis ATR probe confirmed that two industrial etch baths, in identical working conditions, confirmed a difference in Cu2+ concentration by the difference of the near IR 860nm peak. The scope of this probe allowed chemically specific monitoring of the Cu etch bath to achieve a successful regeneration for repeated use. Interlayer dielectrics (ILDs) provide mechanical and electrical stability to the 3D electrical interconnects found in IC devices. It is particularly important that the structural support is created properly in the multilayered architecture to prevent the electrical cross signaling in short range distances. A combined multiple internal reflection and transmission FTIR has been employed for the characterization of silicon oxycarbonitride (SiOCN) films. These dielectric low-k films incorporate various functional groups bonded to silicon and require chemical bonding insight in the transformation and curing process. Distinct SiOx bonding patterns were differentiated, and the structure of the films can be predicted based on the amount of Si network and caged species. Further optimization of the FTIR analysis must minimize interference from moisture that can impact the judgement of peak heights. To accommodate this, a high-quality glove box was designed for dry air feedthrough to achieve a 95% moisture reduction during analysis, where less than 0.1 mAbs of moisture is detected in the spectra (without additional correction). The glove box allows for the rapid analysis of multiple sample throughput to outpace alternative characterization methods while retaining low spectral noise and a dry environment for 24/7 analysis. There is a great need to identify new catalysts that are suitable for tackling current economic demands, one of which is the nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR). The development of the surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) has been applied to characterize the NRR mechanisms on the vanadium oxynitride electrocatalyst. Electrochemical measurements demonstrate NRR activity that is up to three times greater in the presence of N2 than the control Ar. FTIR operando suggests that a considerable number of intermediates were formed and continued to increase in absorbing value under an applied potential of -0.8 V vs Ag/AgCl. XPS results of the post-NRR film suggest a restricting of the film where vanadium oxynitride films are prone to instabilities under the possible MvK mechanism. After 90 minutes of NRR, the NH3 generated was approximately 0.01 ppm was calculated for through the salicylate colorimetric method. On-going efforts are focusing on optimizing the vanadium oxynitride film by the tuning of the oxynitride ratios and crystalline properties to promote the formation of V≡N: during the nitrogen reduction reaction.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La conversión de energía solar a productos químicos se considera una de las estrategias más viables para abordar los problemas derivados del uso masivo de combustibles fósiles y la excesiva emisión antropogénica de CO2. En catálisis asistida con luz, incluida la fotocatálisis y la catálisis fototérmica, el punto clave es el desarrollo de fotocatalizadores eficientes y robustos que puedan utilizar al máximo la energía solar y que sean lo suficientemente estables como para su comercialización. Los materiales basados en perovskitas híbridas orgánicas-inorgánicas han revolucionado el campo de la fotovoltaica en la última década, alcanzando una eficiencia de conversión de luz solar del 23%. Dado que los campos de la fotocatálisis y la fotovoltaica comparten procesos comunes, se abre la posibilidad de aplicación de estos materiales en fotocatálisis. Con el objetivo de confirmar esta posible aplicación de las perovskitas híbridas en fotocatálisis, en esta Tesis Doctoral, se han sintetizado nuevos materiales híbridos de perovskita con el objetivo de mejorar su estabilidad frente a la humedad aprovechando la gran variedad de ligandos orgánicos disponibles, que además pueden ser usados para promover modificaciones superficiales capaces de ajustar las propiedades hidrofílicas / hidrofóbicas. La actividad fotocatalítica de estos nuevos materiales de perovskita se ha estudiado en reacciones modelo para confirmar su estabilidad en las condiciones de reacción. Por otro lado, la reacción de fijación de nitrógeno fotoasistida también ha sido estudiada en detalle en esta Tesis Doctoral. Por un lado, se han sintetizado, caracterizado y testado nuevos complejos organometálicos como foto- y electrocatalizadores homogéneos para esta reacción. Estos han demostrado ser capaces de activar la molécula de dinitrógeno bajo un potencial electroquímico de reducción para formar amoníaco. Por otro lado, se han preparado nanopartículas de rutenio depositadas sobre un material de perovskita a base de titanato como fotocatalizador heterogéneo para la producción de amoniaco en flujo continuo. Además, se ha demostrado que la incorporación de metales alcalinos a este fotocatalizador puede potenciar su actividad fotocatalítica en esta reacción. Así, este material compuesto ha demostrado estar entre los fotocatalizadores más eficientes del estado del arte en la actualidad para esta reacción demostrando además una su elevada estabilidad en las condiciones de reacción. / [CA] La conversió d'energia solar en productes químics es considera una de les estratègies més viables per abordar els problemes derivats de l'ús massiu de combustibles fòssils i l'excessiva emissió antropogènica de CO2. En catàlisi assistida amb llum, inclosa la fotocatàlisi i la catàlisi fototèrmica, el punt clau és el desenvolupament de fotocatalitzadors eficients i robustos que puguen utilitzar al màxim l'energia solar i que siguen prou estables com per a la seva comercialització. Els materials basats en perovskites híbrides orgàniques-inorgàniques han revolucionat el camp de la fotovoltaica en l'última dècada, aconseguint una eficiència de conversió de llum solar del 23%. Atès que els camps de la fotocatàlisi i la fotovoltaica comparteixen processos comuns, s'obre la possibilitat d'aplicació d'aquests materials en fotocatàlisi. Amb l'objectiu de confirmar aquesta possible aplicació de les perovskites híbrides en fotocatàlisi, en aquesta tesi doctoral, s'han sintetitzat nous materials híbrids de perovskita amb l'objectiu de millorar la seva estabilitat enfront de la humitat aprofitant la gran varietat de lligands orgànics disponibles, que amés poden ser usats per a promoure modificacions superficials capaços d'ajustar les propietats hidrofíliques / hidrofòbiques. L'activitat fotocatalítica d'aquests nous materials de perovskita s'ha estudiat en reaccions model per confirmar la seva estabilitat en les condicions de reacció. D'altra banda, la reacció de fixació de nitrogen fotoassistida també ha sigut estudiada en detall en aquesta tesi doctoral. D'una banda, s'han sintetitzat, caracteritzat i testat nous complexos organometàl·lics com foto- i electrocatalitzadors homogenis per a aquesta reacció. Aquests han demostrat ser capaços d'activar la molècula de dinitrogen sota un potencial electroquímic de reducció per formar amoníac. D'altra banda, s'han preparat nanopartícules de ruteni depositades sobre un material de perovskita a força de titanat com fotocatalitzador heterogeni per a la producció d'amoníac en flux continu. A més, s'ha demostrat que la incorporació de metalls alcalins a aquest fotocatalitzador pot potenciar la seva activitat fotocatalítica en aquesta reacció. Així, aquest material compost ha demostrat estar entre els fotocatalitzadors més eficients de l'estat de l'art actualment per a aquesta reacció seva demostrant amés una elevada estabilitat en les condicions de reacció. / [EN] Solar energy to chemicals conversion is regarded to be one of the most plausible strategies addressing the issues of fossil fuel crisis and excessive anthropogenic CO2 emission. For photo-assisted catalysis, including photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, the key point is the development of efficient and robust photocatalysts that can efficiently utilize the solar energy as well as they are stable enough that meets the requirements for commercialization. Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites have revolutionized the photovoltaic field in the last decade, reaching a certified sunlight conversion efficiency of 20 %. Since photocatalysis and photovoltaics share common processes, the application of these materials in photocatalysis would be possible. In this Doctoral Thesis, novel hybrid perovskite materials have been synthesized with the aim to improve their stability against moisture by taking advantage large variety of the available organic ligand, which can promote surface modifications capable to adjust the hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties. Additionally, the photocatalytic activity of these novel perovskite materials has been studied in model reactions in order to confirm their stability under reaction conditions. On the other hand, the photo-assisted nitrogen fixation reaction has been also studied in detail in this Doctoral Thesis. on one hand, new organometallic complexes have been synthetized, characterized and tested as homogeneous photo and electrocatalysts for this reaction. They have been demonstrated to be able to activate dinitrogen molecule under electrochemical cathodic potentials to form ammonia. On the other hand, ruthenium nanoparticles deposited on a titanate-based perovskite material have been prepared and tested as heterogeneous photocatalyst for ammonia production in continuous flow. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the addition of alkali metals to this photocatalyst can boost the photocatalytic activity of this reaction. Thus, this composite material has demonstrated to be among the most efficient photocatalysts in the current state-of-the art for this reaction, as well as very stable under reaction conditions. Considering the large industrial importance of N2 fixation and the mild conditions of pressure and temperature used in the present study, the results of the photo-assisted N2 hydrogenation to ammonia can have a large impact in the area. / Peng, Y. (2021). Hybrid Lead Perovskites as Photocatalysts and Materials for Photo- and Electrocatalytic N2 Reduction [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/171731 / Compendio

A highly effective electrocatalyst is the central component of advanced electrochemical energy conversion. Recently, two-dimensional conjugated metal-organic frameworks (2D c-MOFs) have emerged as a class of promising electrocatalysts due to their advantages including 2D layered structure with high in-plane conjugation, intrinsic electrical conductivity, permanent pores, large surface area, chemical stability, and structural diversity. In this review, we summarize the recent advances of 2D c-MOF electrocatalysts for electrochemical energy conversion. Firstly, we introduce the chemical design principles and synthetic strategies of the reported 2D c-MOFs, as well as the functional design for the electrocatalysis. Subsequently, we present the representative 2D c-MOF electrocatalysts in various electrochemical reactions, such as hydrogen/oxygen evolution, and reduction reactions of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. We highlight the strategies for the structural design and property tuning of 2D c-MOF electrocatalysts to boost the catalytic performance, and offer our perspectives in regard to the challenges to be overcome.

Cereal rye (CR), the most common and effective nitrogen (N) scavenging cover crop option in the Midwest, is often utilized in cropping systems to reduce nitrate loss for environmental benefits. To increase environmental efficiency in Midwest corn cropping systems, we must increase the overall adoption of CR. However, due to the yield reduction potential (6%) for corn planted after CR termination, CR is primarily recommended before soybean. To increase CR adoption, we must develop adaptive fertilizer management practices that achieve competitive grain yields relative to cropping systems where CR is not adopted. Therefore, the objectives of this study are to determine (1) the effect of CR and starter nitrogen rate on corn growth and nitrogen content. (2) the optimum starter nitrogen rate to achieve agronomic optimum corn yield following CR. (3) the impact of phosphorus (P) at starter on plant growth, nitrogen content, and yield with the inclusion of CR. For our study, five starter N rates were applied in a 5x5 cm band to both CR and non-CR plots, concentrations ranged from 0-84 kg N ha^-1in 28 kg N ha^-1 intervals. Total N applied was the same for each treatment, relative to its location, and was split between starter N at planting and sidedress applied at growth stage V6 relatively. Although CR termination took place at least two weeks before planting, CR decreased corn grain yield at one of three locations by an average of 8%, nitrogen recovery efficiency (NRE) by 27%, and R6 total N content by 23%, relative to the conventional control (non-CR 0N), when no starter N was applied. At one of three locations, starter N rates of 56 kg N ha^-1, 56 kg N ha^-1plus 17 kg P ha^-1, and 84 kg N ha^-1 increased corn grain yield, in CR plots, and 56 kg N ha^-1 plus 17 kg P ha^-1 increased corn grain yield in non-CR plots. Phosphorus increased corn grain N content at growth stage R6 in one of three locations and did not impact corn grain yield at all locations. We conclude that the inclusion of starter N at planting has the potential to increase agronomic productivity in CR corn cropping systems in soil environments with a high capacity to mineralize soil N. However, further research is required to refine our starter N results to find an optimum starter N rate to apply before planting corn following CR.