A resposta inflamatória está envolvida em muitos aspectos da biologia do câncer. O inflamassoma é um complexo multiprotéico intracelular compostos por três elementos: um receptor de reconhecimento de padrões moleculares (PRR), uma proteína ligadora ASC (proteína speck-like associada à apoptose com domínio de recrutamento de caspase) e o zimogênio pró-caspase-1. A ativação da caspase-1 é responsável pela síntese de IL-18 e, principalmente, de IL-1?. A ativação da caspase-1 é ainda capaz de induzir a piroptose, um tipo de morte celular inflamatória. O papel dos inflamassomas no câncer ainda é mal definido, devido às suas funções contrastantes na oncogênese, variando a depender do tipo de tecido e do estágio da tumorigênese em que são ativados. Estudos recentes mostraram uma ativação do inflamassoma à medida que o melanoma progride. Avaliamos a expressão de componentes do inflamassoma, incluindo dois tipos de PRR (NLRP1 e NLRP3), da enzima caspase-1, e da IL-1beta em neoplasias melanocíticas benignas e malignas, por meio de técnica de imunohistoquímica. Foram analisadas amostras de tecidos embebidos em parafina de 25 pacientes com melanoma (16 melanomas finos e 9 melanomas intermediários-espessos) e 22 pacientes com nevo melanocítico (12 nevos intradérmicos e 10 nevos displásicos). Todas as amostras de pele foram recuperadas dos arquivos do Departamento de Dermatologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Evidenciamos uma maior expressão de NLRP1, NLRP3 e caspase-1 nos melanomas quando comparados aos nevos. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa quanto a expressão de IL-1beta entre os grupos. De forma inesperada, a descoberta mais interessante foi uma maior expressão de NLRP1 em melanomas finos do que nos tumores mais espessos. Esses achados sugerem que um aumento de NLRP1 poderia representar um evento promotor na transformação de melanócitos, mas que não estaria envolvido na progressão tumoral. Estudos adicionais são necessários para esclarecer esta complexa relação entre as proliferações melanocíticas e o inflamassoma / Inflammatory response is involved in many aspects of cancer biology. Inflammasomes are a group of cytosolic multiprotein complexes, classically consisting of an upstream sensor protein of the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family, the adaptor protein ASC, and the downstream effector caspase-1. Its activation leads to the production of biologically active IL-1beta and IL-18, and consequently contributing to the inflammatory process. Caspase-1 activation can also induce pyroptotic cell death, that is accompanied by the release of cytosolic contents to the extracellular space eliciting local inflammation. The roles of the inflammasomes in cancer are still ill defined, due to their contrasting roles in oncogenesis. Recent studies have shown an activation of the inflammosome as melanoma progresses. We evaluated the expression of inflamassome components (NLRP1, NLRP3, caspase-1) and of IL-1beta in melanocytic neoplasms, by immunohistochemistry. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 25 patients with melanoma (16 thin melanomas and 9 intermediate-thick melanomas), and 22 patients with melanocytic nevus (12 intradermal nevi and 10 dysplastic nevi) were analyzed. All skin samples were retrieved from the files of the Department of Dermatology at Clinics Hospital of Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo. Comparing all nevi with all melanomas, we found a higher expression of NLRP1, NLRP3 and caspase-1 in melanomas. There was no difference of IL-1beta expression between the groups. For the first time, to our knowledge, we reported an increasing expression of NLRP1 in melanoma compared to melanocytic nevus. Unexpectantly, NLRP1 expression resulted augmented NLRP1 in thin melanomas compared with intermediate-thick melanomas. These data may suggest a role of NLRP1 in oncogenesis, but that its expression decreases as disease progresses. We can hypothesize that an increase of NLRP1 could represent a promoter event in melanocyte transformation, but it does not be involved in tumour progression. The association between nevus, melanoma and inflammasomes seems to be complex and further studies are necessary to clarify this

A resposta inflamatória está envolvida em muitos aspectos da biologia do câncer. O inflamassoma é um complexo multiprotéico intracelular compostos por três elementos: um receptor de reconhecimento de padrões moleculares (PRR), uma proteína ligadora ASC (proteína speck-like associada à apoptose com domínio de recrutamento de caspase) e o zimogênio pró-caspase-1. A ativação da caspase-1 é responsável pela síntese de IL-18 e, principalmente, de IL-1?. A ativação da caspase-1 é ainda capaz de induzir a piroptose, um tipo de morte celular inflamatória. O papel dos inflamassomas no câncer ainda é mal definido, devido às suas funções contrastantes na oncogênese, variando a depender do tipo de tecido e do estágio da tumorigênese em que são ativados. Estudos recentes mostraram uma ativação do inflamassoma à medida que o melanoma progride. Avaliamos a expressão de componentes do inflamassoma, incluindo dois tipos de PRR (NLRP1 e NLRP3), da enzima caspase-1, e da IL-1beta em neoplasias melanocíticas benignas e malignas, por meio de técnica de imunohistoquímica. Foram analisadas amostras de tecidos embebidos em parafina de 25 pacientes com melanoma (16 melanomas finos e 9 melanomas intermediários-espessos) e 22 pacientes com nevo melanocítico (12 nevos intradérmicos e 10 nevos displásicos). Todas as amostras de pele foram recuperadas dos arquivos do Departamento de Dermatologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Evidenciamos uma maior expressão de NLRP1, NLRP3 e caspase-1 nos melanomas quando comparados aos nevos. Não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa quanto a expressão de IL-1beta entre os grupos. De forma inesperada, a descoberta mais interessante foi uma maior expressão de NLRP1 em melanomas finos do que nos tumores mais espessos. Esses achados sugerem que um aumento de NLRP1 poderia representar um evento promotor na transformação de melanócitos, mas que não estaria envolvido na progressão tumoral. Estudos adicionais são necessários para esclarecer esta complexa relação entre as proliferações melanocíticas e o inflamassoma / Inflammatory response is involved in many aspects of cancer biology. Inflammasomes are a group of cytosolic multiprotein complexes, classically consisting of an upstream sensor protein of the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family, the adaptor protein ASC, and the downstream effector caspase-1. Its activation leads to the production of biologically active IL-1beta and IL-18, and consequently contributing to the inflammatory process. Caspase-1 activation can also induce pyroptotic cell death, that is accompanied by the release of cytosolic contents to the extracellular space eliciting local inflammation. The roles of the inflammasomes in cancer are still ill defined, due to their contrasting roles in oncogenesis. Recent studies have shown an activation of the inflammosome as melanoma progresses. We evaluated the expression of inflamassome components (NLRP1, NLRP3, caspase-1) and of IL-1beta in melanocytic neoplasms, by immunohistochemistry. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 25 patients with melanoma (16 thin melanomas and 9 intermediate-thick melanomas), and 22 patients with melanocytic nevus (12 intradermal nevi and 10 dysplastic nevi) were analyzed. All skin samples were retrieved from the files of the Department of Dermatology at Clinics Hospital of Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo. Comparing all nevi with all melanomas, we found a higher expression of NLRP1, NLRP3 and caspase-1 in melanomas. There was no difference of IL-1beta expression between the groups. For the first time, to our knowledge, we reported an increasing expression of NLRP1 in melanoma compared to melanocytic nevus. Unexpectantly, NLRP1 expression resulted augmented NLRP1 in thin melanomas compared with intermediate-thick melanomas. These data may suggest a role of NLRP1 in oncogenesis, but that its expression decreases as disease progresses. We can hypothesize that an increase of NLRP1 could represent a promoter event in melanocyte transformation, but it does not be involved in tumour progression. The association between nevus, melanoma and inflammasomes seems to be complex and further studies are necessary to clarify this

Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) are a group of evolutionarily conserved and germline-encoded cellular receptors of the innate immune system that are responsible for recognizing and responding to the entirety of the pathogens a host encounters. The ingenuity of the innate immune system is that with a comparatively miniscule pool of receptors, these receptors are capable of responding to a diverse and large array of pathogens and damage signals. Two highly relevant subsets of PRRs include nucleotide binding domain leucine rich repeat containing (NOD-like) receptors (NLRs) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Both NLRs and TLRs have been implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory conditions, and cancer. Mice lacking a specific NLR, NLRP1, are more susceptible to chemically induced colitis and colitis-associated tumorigenesis. We investigated whether the absence of NLRP1 in the gastrointestinal tract influenced the composition of the microbiome, and whether it was responsible for the predisposition of these animals to colitis-associated cancer. By carefully controlling for non-genotype influences, we found that in fact maternal and housing factors were greater predictors over genotype of gut flora composition. This study concluded with a clearer understanding of NLRP1. We next investigated the effectiveness of a novel tumor ablation therapy, termed High-Frequency Irreversible Electroporation (H-FIRE) in a murine model of triple negative breast cancer. The chosen 4T1 model closely mimics aggressive human metastatic triple negative breast cancer, and metastasizes to the same organs. After ablation of the primary mammary tumor, we saw significant improvements in disease burden and metastases, both of which were accompanied by PRR activation within the tumor microenvironment, implicating PRRs in the successful treatment outcome following H-FIRE ablation. Lastly, we generated novel CRISPR-Cas9 plasmids to genetically manipulate the Tlr4 gene of wild type C57Bl/6 mice in order to recapitulate the LPS-hyporesponsive TLR4 protein of C3H/HeJ mice. This proof-of-concept study successfully demonstrated that PRRs can be targets for gene editing purposes, and that nanoparticle delivery leads to enhanced and improved delivery. Collectively, this work attempts to better appreciate the role of PRRs in understanding, treating, and targeting cancer. / Doctor of Philosophy / The work presented here focuses on the role of the immune system in the progression of cancer. Put simply, the properly functioning immune system of a healthy individual should recognize and eliminate mutated or cancerous cells prior to the development of a tumor, thereby implying that the progression to a tumor is due to some dysfunction of the immune system. The immune system is made up of two arms: the innate and adaptive. A key difference between the innate and adaptive immune systems is that upon an infection, the adaptive response is slow and specific while the innate response is rapid and broad. Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) are a group of cellular receptors of the innate immune system that are responsible for recognizing and responding to the entirety of the pathogens a host encounters. The ingenuity of the innate immune system is that with a comparatively miniscule pool of receptors, these receptors are capable of responding to a diverse and large array of pathogens. Two highly relevant PRR families are nucleotide binding domain leucine rich repeat containing (NOD-like) receptors (NLRs) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Both NLRs and TLRs have been implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory conditions, and cancer. In this work, we investigated whether the absence of an NLR protein influenced the composition of the microbes that reside within the gastrointestinal tract, and whether this absence was responsible for the predisposition of these animals to colitis-associated cancer. By carefully controlling for all additional influences, we found that in our mice, the other animals with which they shared a cage were more influential on the microbes within the gut, rather than the NLR deficiency. We next investigated a novel tumor ablation therapy in an animal model of breast cancer, which closely mimics human metastatic triple negative breast cancer and metastasizes to the same organs. After treatment of the mammary tumor, we saw significant improvements in disease burden and metastases, both of which were accompanied by PRR activation. Lastly, we manipulated a TLR gene in mice to demonstrate that PRRs can be targeted for therapeutic gene editing. Collectively, this work provides evidence that PRRs are a highly useful tool for improving our understanding of cancer.

O diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) é uma doença autoimune caracterizada pela destruição das células b presentes nas ilhotas pancreáticas por linfócitos T auto-reativos, especialmente Th1 e Th17, levando o indivíduo a um estado de hiperglicemia. Embora existam diversos estudos que abordam a resposta imune adaptativa no contexto do DM1, poucos trabalhos tentaram elucidar o papel da resposta imune inata no desenvolvimento da doença. Neste contexto, avaliamos o perfil de expressão e o papel do receptor NLRP1 na patogênese do DM1 experimental e em humanos. Nossos dados apontam que no modelo de DM1 induzido por STZ, NLRP1 possui um papel protetor no desenvolvimento da doença de forma independente da ativação do inflamassoma, através da inibição da translocação de bactérias para os linfonodos pancreáticos (LNPs), além de reduzir a diferenciação de células Th17 e Tc17 nos LNPs, o que foi correlacionado à diminuição de IL-17 no pâncreas. Posteriormente, analisamos o papel de NLRP1 em outro modelo experimental, o NOD (nonobese diabetic), onde descrevemos que NLRP1 também é expresso no desenvolvimento da doença. Por fim, avaliamos o papel de NLRP1 em pacientes com DM1, através da genotipagem desses pacientes para um polimorfismo com ganho de função em NLRP1, o rs12150220. Ao contrário do que acontece em camundongos, NLRP1 em humanos parece ter um papel patogênico, uma vez que detectamos mais células T produtoras de IL-17 em células mononucleares do sangue periférico de indivíduos com o polimorfismo, além de níveis elevados da citocina no soro. Em suma, nossos dados apontam para papéis distintos de NLRP1 em camundongos e humanos com DM1, sugerindo cautela ao tentarmos transpor os achados sobre o receptor em camundongos para a clínica. / Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that is caused by the destruction of the pancreatic b cells by autoreactive T cells, especially Th1 and Th17, leading to a state of hyperglycemia. Even though there are several studies on the role of the adaptive immune response in T1D, little is known about the role of an innate immune response in the development of the disease. Thus, we investigated the role of NLRP1 in the pathogenesis of mouse and human T1D. Our data indicate that in STZ-induced T1D, NLRP1 exerts a protective role in the development of the disease in an inflammasome-independent pathway, through the inhibition of bacterial translocation to the pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs), and inhibition of the differentiation of Th17 and Tc17 cells in the PLNs, which correlated with decreased levels of IL-17 in the pancreas. Then, we analyzed the role of NLRP1 in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. We demonstrate that NLRP1 is also expressed in the development of T1D in this murine model. Lastly, we evaluated the role of NLRP1 in T1D patients, by genotyping these individuals for a polymorphism with a gain-of-function in NLRP1, the rs12150220. Unlike murine NLRP1, NLRP1 in humans appears to be pathogenic, considering that we detected more IL-17-producing T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients carrying the polymorphism, besides elevated levels of this cytokine in the serum. Overall, our data suggest distinct roles for murine and human NLRP1 in the context of T1D, suggesting carefulness when translating the findings from murine NLRP1 to the clinic.

O diabetes tipo 1 (DM1) é uma doença autoimune caracterizada pela destruição das células b presentes nas ilhotas pancreáticas por linfócitos T auto-reativos, especialmente Th1 e Th17, levando o indivíduo a um estado de hiperglicemia. Embora existam diversos estudos que abordam a resposta imune adaptativa no contexto do DM1, poucos trabalhos tentaram elucidar o papel da resposta imune inata no desenvolvimento da doença. Neste contexto, avaliamos o perfil de expressão e o papel do receptor NLRP1 na patogênese do DM1 experimental e em humanos. Nossos dados apontam que no modelo de DM1 induzido por STZ, NLRP1 possui um papel protetor no desenvolvimento da doença de forma independente da ativação do inflamassoma, através da inibição da translocação de bactérias para os linfonodos pancreáticos (LNPs), além de reduzir a diferenciação de células Th17 e Tc17 nos LNPs, o que foi correlacionado à diminuição de IL-17 no pâncreas. Posteriormente, analisamos o papel de NLRP1 em outro modelo experimental, o NOD (nonobese diabetic), onde descrevemos que NLRP1 também é expresso no desenvolvimento da doença. Por fim, avaliamos o papel de NLRP1 em pacientes com DM1, através da genotipagem desses pacientes para um polimorfismo com ganho de função em NLRP1, o rs12150220. Ao contrário do que acontece em camundongos, NLRP1 em humanos parece ter um papel patogênico, uma vez que detectamos mais células T produtoras de IL-17 em células mononucleares do sangue periférico de indivíduos com o polimorfismo, além de níveis elevados da citocina no soro. Em suma, nossos dados apontam para papéis distintos de NLRP1 em camundongos e humanos com DM1, sugerindo cautela ao tentarmos transpor os achados sobre o receptor em camundongos para a clínica. / Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that is caused by the destruction of the pancreatic b cells by autoreactive T cells, especially Th1 and Th17, leading to a state of hyperglycemia. Even though there are several studies on the role of the adaptive immune response in T1D, little is known about the role of an innate immune response in the development of the disease. Thus, we investigated the role of NLRP1 in the pathogenesis of mouse and human T1D. Our data indicate that in STZ-induced T1D, NLRP1 exerts a protective role in the development of the disease in an inflammasome-independent pathway, through the inhibition of bacterial translocation to the pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs), and inhibition of the differentiation of Th17 and Tc17 cells in the PLNs, which correlated with decreased levels of IL-17 in the pancreas. Then, we analyzed the role of NLRP1 in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. We demonstrate that NLRP1 is also expressed in the development of T1D in this murine model. Lastly, we evaluated the role of NLRP1 in T1D patients, by genotyping these individuals for a polymorphism with a gain-of-function in NLRP1, the rs12150220. Unlike murine NLRP1, NLRP1 in humans appears to be pathogenic, considering that we detected more IL-17-producing T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients carrying the polymorphism, besides elevated levels of this cytokine in the serum. Overall, our data suggest distinct roles for murine and human NLRP1 in the context of T1D, suggesting carefulness when translating the findings from murine NLRP1 to the clinic.

The inflammasome complex is a multiprotein complex that may play a role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by secreting the inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, and inducing pyroptosis, as a response to signals through several inflammasome sensors. This study looked at the expression of several inflammasome components in the ileum and colon of patients suffering from IBD. The inflammasome sensors NLRP1, NLRP3, AIM2 and pyrin were upregulated in whole intestinal tissue of IBD patients, particularly in the colon. NLRP6 expression was increased in the colon of Crohn's disease patients, but not ulcerative colitis patients relative to colon of controls, and was reduced in the ileum of Crohn's disease patients compared to control ileum. Expression of caspase-1 and IL-1β, but not IL-18, were also increased in ileum and colon tissue from Crohn's patients. To identify the cell type where inflammasome expression was altered in Crohn’s disease, transcription of inflammasome subunits in intestinal tissue enriched for epithelial cells or lamina propria (LP) cells was analysed. These analyses indicated that LP cells have greater expression of the inflammasome sensors NLRP1, NLRP3, AIM2 and pyrin relative to epithelial cells, both during disease and in control tissue. Moreover, LP cells from Crohn’s patients have higher expression level of NLRP1, AIM2 and pyrin than LP cells from controls. In contrast the inflammasome sensor NLRP6 was more highly expressed by epithelial cells relative to LP cells in general, and NLRP6 expression in LP cells from IBD patients was lower than that observed in LP cells from controls. The observed differential expression of inflammasome components in controls versus IBD intestine and in different cellular fractions of intestinal tissue highlight the importance of understanding the role of the inflammasome in IBD and hints at the possibility of targeting the inflammasome pathway as a future treatment strategy.

Nlrp1b is a NOD-like receptor of the innate immune system that upon sensing of anthrax lethal toxin oliogmerizes and forms a protein scaffold that binds to and activates pro-caspase-1; this complex is called an inflammasome. Nlrp1b is highly polymorphic and different alleles display an all or none ability to sense lethal toxin. Here I show that Nlrp1b is cleaved in the FIIND domain, and that the cleaved fragments remain associated even after activation by lethal toxin. The inflammasome activity of an inactive allele was restored by three mutations, one of which also restored cleavage. A heterologous cleavage site was inserted into an uncleaved mutant of Nlrp1b; induced proteolysis of the cleavage site rescued inflammasome activity. An uncleaved mutant of Nlrp1b showed no deficiency in FIIND self-association, but did have reduced recruitment of pro-caspase-1. These data provide evidence that cleavage of Nlrp1b is required for proper recruitment and activation of caspase-1.

Nlrp1b is a NOD-like receptor of the innate immune system that upon sensing of anthrax lethal toxin oliogmerizes and forms a protein scaffold that binds to and activates pro-caspase-1; this complex is called an inflammasome. Nlrp1b is highly polymorphic and different alleles display an all or none ability to sense lethal toxin. Here I show that Nlrp1b is cleaved in the FIIND domain, and that the cleaved fragments remain associated even after activation by lethal toxin. The inflammasome activity of an inactive allele was restored by three mutations, one of which also restored cleavage. A heterologous cleavage site was inserted into an uncleaved mutant of Nlrp1b; induced proteolysis of the cleavage site rescued inflammasome activity. An uncleaved mutant of Nlrp1b showed no deficiency in FIIND self-association, but did have reduced recruitment of pro-caspase-1. These data provide evidence that cleavage of Nlrp1b is required for proper recruitment and activation of caspase-1.