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Le glutamate est le principal neurotransmetteur excitateur du noyau du tractus solitaire (NTS), une structure sensorielle qui reçoit des informations provenant des viscères. Nous avons utilisé l'immunocytochimie et la microscopie électronique pour étudier les systèmes de recapture du glutamate dans le NTS. Nous montrons que le transporteur exprimé par les astrocytes est de type GLT-1 et que la couverture des synapses glutamatergiques par les processus astrocytaires n'est pas complète ce qui autorise des phénomènes de transmission à distance par diffusion du glutamate. Nous montrons aussi que les dendrites des neurones du NTS expriment le transporteur de type EAAC1. Ce transporteur est essentiellement présent sous forme d'un pool intracellulaire. Son expression membranaire pourrait donc être régulée par l'activité. Enfin, dans une dernière partie, nous montrons qu'une inflammation des viscères induit une augmentation de la couverture gliale des synapses glutamatergiques du NTS. / Glutamate is the main excitatory transmitter in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), a sensory nucleus involved in visceral information processing. Using electron microscope immunocytochemistry, we have investigated neuron to glia relationships and localization of glutamate transporters in the NTS. We show that NTS astrocytes express GLT-1 and that astrocytic wrapping of NTS glutamatergic synapses is incomplete, allowing glutamate to diffuse out of the synaptic cleft. In addition, we demonstrate that NTS neurons express the EAAC1 transporter. EAAC1 is exclusively present in dendrites and mostly located intracellularly. Finally, we show that visceral inflammation increases the glial wrapping of NTS glutamatergic synapses.

Submitted by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-10T14:10:10Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissWIF.pdf: 2975197 bytes, checksum: 0039c1cb759b3d42c9bd5b659146af6a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-10T14:10:20Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissWIF.pdf: 2975197 bytes, checksum: 0039c1cb759b3d42c9bd5b659146af6a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-10T14:10:28Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissWIF.pdf: 2975197 bytes, checksum: 0039c1cb759b3d42c9bd5b659146af6a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-10T14:10:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissWIF.pdf: 2975197 bytes, checksum: 0039c1cb759b3d42c9bd5b659146af6a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-26 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is the primary synaptic site of the peripheral baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. It has been shown that acetylcholine (ACh) microinjected into the NTS of rats induces hypotension and bradycardia. However, the contribution of cholinergic mechanisms at different NTS subnuclei (intermediate and commissural) as well as the cholinergic receptors blockade on the control of sympathetic (SNA) and phrenic (PNA) nerve activities have not been studied yet. In this study we assessed the role of ACh and its cholinergic receptors at the intermediate NTS (iNTS) and commissural NTS (cNTS) on the control of SNA, PNA and electrophysiological properties of these subnuclei neurons, as well as on baro and chemoreflex responses. Decorticated arterially-perfused in situ preparations of male juvenile rats were used to record SNA and PNA. Microinjections of ACh and cholinergic antagonists were performed into the iNTS or cNTS. Coronal slices of the brainstem containing either cNTS or iNTS subnuclei were obtained from male juvenile rats and used in whole cell patch clamp – current clamp recordings. It was observed that ACh microinjected into the iNTS inhibited both SNA and PNA. These effects were reduced by the pre-treatment with atropine (muscarinic antagonist) or mecamylamine (nicotinic antagonist). The cholinergic antagonists into the iNTS did not change the effects on SNA and PNA induced by baro and chemoreflex activation. In contrast, microinjections of ACh into the cNTS did not induce changes in SNA, but increased PNA. Despite the absence of changes in SNA, ACh into the cNTS changed the pattern of respiratory-sympathetic coupling. Both atropine and mecamylamine into the cNTS inhibited the ACh-induced tachypnea, but only mecamylamine inhibited the chemoreflex-induced tachypnea and the ACh-induced change in respiratory-sympathetic coupling. In vitro studies demonstrated that ACh promotes depolarization in both iNTS and cNTS neurons. Both muscarinic and nicotinic antagonism in the iNTS inhibited the ACh-induced depolarization. However, only nicotinic antagonist was effective in diminishing this response in the cNTS. The results suggest that ACh plays an important role in the control of cardiovascular and respiratory activities, with distinct functions between iNTS and cNTS. This cholinergic control involves activation of both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors within NTS, but only nicotinic receptors are involved in the chemoreflex tachypneic response. / O núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) é o sítio primário de aferências dos barorreceptores arteriais e quimiorreceptores. Sabe-se que a acetilcolina (ACh) injetada no NTS de ratos provoca hipotensão e bradicardia. Entretanto, não se sabe até o momento qual o papel do sistema colinérgico nos diferentes subnúcleos do NTS (intermediário ou comissural) ou o bloqueio de seus receptores na atividade simpática (SNA) ou na atividade do frênico (PNA). No presente estudo avaliamos os efeitos da ACh e seus receptores no NTS intermediário (NTSi) e comissural (NTSc) sobre a SNA, PNA e sobre as propriedades eletrofisiológicas dos neurônios desses subnúcleos, bem como nas respostas do baro e quimiorreflexos. Preparações in situ decorticadas de ratos jovens foram utilizadas para registro da SNA e PNA, e ACh e antagonistas colinérgicos foram microinjetados no NTSi ou NTSc. Cortes coronais bulbares contendo o NTSi ou NTSc foram obtidos de ratos jovens e utilizados para registro de neurônios através da técnica whole cell patch clamp – current clamp. Foi observado que a microinjeção de ACh no NTSi inibe tanto a SNA quanto a PNA, sendo que tais efeitos são inibidos pelo tratamento com atropina (antagonista muscarínico) ou mecamilamina (antagonista nicotínico). Os antagonistas colinérgicos no NTSi não alteraram os efeitos na SNA e PNA induzidos pela ativação do baro e quimiorreflexos. Por outro lado, microinjeções de ACh no NTSc não altera a SNA mas promove aumento da PNA. Apesar de não alterar a SNA, a ACh no NTSc promove alterações no acoplamento simpato-respiratório. Tanto a atropina quanto a mecamilamina microinjetadas no NTSc inibiram a taquipnéia induzida pela ACh, mas apenas a mecamilamina inibiu a taquipnéia resultante do quimiorreflexo e a alteração no acoplamento simpato-respiratório induzida pela ACh no NTSc. Nos estudos in vitro, observamos que a ACh promove respostas de despolarização em neurônios tanto do NTSi quanto do NTSc. O bloqueio de receptores tanto nicotínicos quanto muscarínicos no NTSi diminui a despolarização evocada pela ACh. No entanto, apenas o antagonista nicotínico foi capaz de diminuir essa resposta no NTSc. Os resultados sugerem que a ACh desempenha um importante papel no controle cardiorrespiratório, com funções distintas entre NTSi e NTSc. Esse controle colinérgico envolve a ativação de receptores tanto nicotínicos quanto muscarínicos no NTS, mas apenas receptores nicotínicos estão envolvidos na resposta de taquipnéia do quimiorreflexo. / FAPESP: 2010/17218-0

Submitted by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-21T19:55:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseRAT.pdf: 1727135 bytes, checksum: b87fbc21ecbb31231523f49768c99fd8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-21T19:55:17Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseRAT.pdf: 1727135 bytes, checksum: b87fbc21ecbb31231523f49768c99fd8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-21T19:55:23Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseRAT.pdf: 1727135 bytes, checksum: b87fbc21ecbb31231523f49768c99fd8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-21T19:55:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseRAT.pdf: 1727135 bytes, checksum: b87fbc21ecbb31231523f49768c99fd8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-20 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), the primary site of peripheral osmoreceptor and cardiovascular afferences, is suggested to receive important inhibitory signals involved in the control of water and sodium intake. However, it is not known which neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of this information. Central gabaergic, serotonergic and adrenergic mechanisms are involved in the control of sodium and water intake and immunohistochemical studies have shown that these receptors are present in the NTS. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effects of muscimol (a GABAA receptor agonist), DOI (a serotonergic 5-HT2A/2C receptor agonist), methysergide (a serotonergic 5-HT1/2 receptor antagonist) and moxonidine (α2 adrenergic/imidazoline receptor agonist) injected into the NTS on water and 0.3 M NaCl intake induced by intragastric load of 2 M NaCl (a cellular dehydration protocol), by intracerebroventricular (icv) angiotensin II (ANG II) or by sodium depletion (furosemide + 24 h diet deficient in sodium, a extracellular dehydration protocol). Holtzman rats (290-310 g, n=3-20) had stainless steel cannulas implanted bilaterally into the NTS and into the lateral ventricle (LV). Bilateral injection of muscimol (0.25 and 0.5 nmol/100 nl), and DOI (2.5 μg/100 nl) reduced water intake induced by intragastric load of 2 M NaCl (2 ml/rat) and water intake induced by icv ANG II (50 ng/100nl) without changing 0.3 M NaCl intake. Bilateral injection of DOI reduced water intake induced by icv ANG II. However, DOI produced no changes in the 0.3 M NaCl and water intake induced by sodium depletion. Injections of methysergide (2 μg/100 nl) produced no changes in the water and 0.3 M NaCl intake induced by intragastric load of 2 M NaCl, icv ANG II or sodium depletion. The pre-treatment with methysergide blocked the effect of DOI on water intake induced by intragastric load of 2 M NaCl. Besides that, bilateral injections of moxonidine (0.5 and 5 nmol/100 nl) produced no changes on water intake induced by intragastric load of 2 M NaCl. The results suggest that gabaergic, serotonergic, but not adrenergic, receptors in the NTS are part of a mechanism involved in the inhibitory control of water intake induced by cellular dehydration. Our results also suggest that serotonergic receptors into the NTS participate in the control of water intake induced by icv injection of ANG II. / O núcleo do trato solitário (NTS), sítio primário das aferências cardiovasculares e dos osmorreceptores periféricos, recebe importantes sinais inibitórios envolvidos no controle da ingestão de água e sódio. Porém, não se sabe quais os neurotransmissores envolvidos na transmissão dessas informações. Mecanismos gabaérgicos, serotoninérgicos e adrenérgicos centrais estão envolvidos no controle da ingestão de água e sódio e estudos de imunohistoquímica mostraram que estes receptores estão presentes no NTS. Portanto, no presente estudo, investigamos os efeitos de muscimol (agonista de receptores gabaérgicos GABAA), DOI (agonista de receptores serotoninérgicos 5-HT2A/2C), metisergida (antagonista de receptores serotoninérgicos 5-HT1/2) e moxonidina (agonista de receptores adrenérgicos/imidazólicos α2) injetados no NTS na ingestão de água e NaCl 0,3 M induzida por sobrecarga intragástrica de NaCl 2 M (um protocolo de desidratação intracelular), por angiotensina II (ANG II) intracerebroventricular (icv) ou por depleção de sódio (furosemida + 24 h com dieta deficiente em sódio, um protocolo de desidratação extracelular). Ratos Holtzman (290-310 g), n=3-20 (por grupo), tiveram cânulas de aço inoxidável implantadas bilateralmente no NTS e no ventrículo lateral (VL). Injeções bilaterais de muscimol (0,25 e 0,5 nmol/100 nl) e DOI (2,5 μg/100 nl) no NTS reduziram a ingestão de água induzida por sobrecarga intragástrica de NaCl 2 M (2 ml/rato) sem alterações na ingestão de NaCl 0,3 M. Injeções bilaterais de DOI no NTS reduziram a ingestão de água induzida por ANG II icv. No entanto, injeções bilaterais de DOI no NTS não alteraram a ingestão de NaCl 0,3 M e água induzida por depleção de sódio. Injeções bilaterais de metisergida (2 μg/100 nl) no NTS não produziram alterações na ingestão de água e de NaCl 0,3 M induzidas por sobrecarga intragástrica de NaCl 2 M, ANG II icv ou depleção de sódio. O pré-tratamento com metisergida bloqueou o efeito de DOI na ingestão de água induzida por sobrecarga intragástrica de NaCl 2 M. Além disso, injeções bilaterais de moxonidina (0,5 e 5 nmol/100 nl) no NTS não alteraram a ingestão de água e de NaCl 0,3 M induzida por sobrecarga intragástrica de NaCl 2 M. Os resultados sugerem que os receptores gabaérgicos e serotoninérgicos, mas não os adrenérgicos do NTS fazem parte de um mecanismo envolvido no controle inibitório da ingestão de água induzida por desidratação intracelular. Nossos resultados também sugerem que receptores serotoninérgicos do NTS participam do controle da ingestão de água induzida por injeção icv de ANG II.

Submitted by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-22T18:04:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissRMB.pdf: 1290621 bytes, checksum: 3870f44730785bfd4b123df5cbec0b90 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-22T18:04:45Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissRMB.pdf: 1290621 bytes, checksum: 3870f44730785bfd4b123df5cbec0b90 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-22T18:04:52Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissRMB.pdf: 1290621 bytes, checksum: 3870f44730785bfd4b123df5cbec0b90 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-22T18:04:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissRMB.pdf: 1290621 bytes, checksum: 3870f44730785bfd4b123df5cbec0b90 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-31 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / The high blood pressure levels reach about 22% of the world population, increasing the risk factors for coronary disease, heart attack and heart failure. Many studies have tried to understand the causes of hypertension and possible mechanisms to facilitate the treatment of hypertension. The central nervous system seems to play a key role in the development and maintenance of hypertension. Among the various brain areas, we can highlight the role of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which is the primary site of visceral afferents. The macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is an intracellular inhibitory regulator of the actions of angiotensin II (ANG II) in the ANG II type 1 receptors. The spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and the rats with renovascular hypertension 2 kidney, 1 clip (2K1C) exhibit an increased activity of the renin-angiotensin system, increased sympathetic activity and reduced baroreflex function. We recently demonstrated that MIF overexpression in the NTS of SHRs lowers blood pressure of these animals and improved the function of the baroreflex. Therefore, in this study we tested if increased expression of MIF in the NTS of the 2K1C rats could alter the development of hypertension and improve the baroreflex function in these animals. For this, the left renal artery was partially obstructed in male Holtzman rats (150-180 g) using a silver clip (0.2 mm width) to induce 2K1C hypertension (n = 5-10/group) or sham surgery [normotensive rats (NT); n = 5-11/group] was performed. Three weeks after renal clip placement or sham surgery, rats received AAV2-CBA-MIF microinjections into the NTS to increase MIF expression in the area or AAV2-CBA-eGFP, which promoted the expression of GFP (enhanced green protein), which served as a control vector. Arterial pressure and heart rate were recorded by telemetry and baroreflex tests were performed. At the end of the experiments, the brains were harvested for immunohistochemistry RT-PCR. MIF injections into the NTS attenuated the hypertension in 2K1C rats from 2 weeks after viral transfection until the end of the experiment (4 weeks after viral transfection), (2K1C-MIF: 145 ± 7, vs. 2K1C-eGFP: 176 ± 9 mmHg; p < 0.05). MIF into the NTS also improved the reflex bradycardia (2K1C-MIF slope: -1.4 ± 0.3, vs. 2K1C-eGPF slope: -0.41 ± 0.3 bpm/mmHg; p < 0.05) and reflex tachycardia (2K1C-MIF slope: -4.7 ± 0.6, vs. 2K1C-eGPF slope: -1.7 ± 0.3 bpm/mmHg; p < 0.05). Baseline heart rate was decreased in 2K1C-MIF rats. In contrast to 2K1C rats, MIF overexpressed in the NTS in normotensive rats produced no change in arterial pressure neither baroreflex function. As expected, the transduction of MIF in the NTS increased mRNA levels for MIF at the same site (NT-MIF: 3.80 ± 0.97, vs. NT-eGFP: 1.00 ± 0.16 fold change and 2K1C-MIF: 3.53 ± 0.68, vs. 2K1C-eGFP: 0.88 ± 0.09 fold change; p < 0.05). These results suggest that increased expression of MIF in neurons within NTS attenuates the hypertension and improves baroreflex function in 2K1C rats, possibly through anti-ANG II actions. / Os altos níveis de pressão arterial atingem cerca de 22% da população mundial, aumentando os fatores de risco para doenças coronarianas, infarto e falência cardíaca. Muitos estudos tentam entender as causas da hipertensão e os possíveis mecanismos que facilitem o tratamento da hipertensão. O sistema nervoso central parece ter um papel chave no desenvolvimento e na manutenção da hipertensão. Dentre as diversas áreas encefálicas, podemos destacar o papel do núcleo do trato solitário (NTS), que é o sítio primário das aferências viscerais. O fator inibitório da migração de macrófagos (MIF) é um regulador inibitório intracelular das ações da angiotensina II (ANG II) em receptores do subtipo AT1. Os ratos espontaneamente hipertensos (SHR) bem como os ratos com hipertensão renovascular 2 rins, 1 clipe (2R1C), exibem uma atividade aumentada do sistema renina-angiotensina, do sistema nervoso simpático e uma diminuição da função do barorreflexo. Recentemente demonstramos que a super-expressão de MIF no NTS de SHRs reduziu a pressão arterial destes animais bem como melhorou a função do barorreflexo. Portanto, neste estudo testamos se a expressão aumentada de MIF no NTS de ratos 2R1C poderia altenuar o desenvolvimento da hipertensão e melhorar a função do barorreflexo nestes animais. Para tanto, a artéria renal esquerda foi parcialmente obstruída em ratos Holtzman (150-180 g) utilizando um clipe de prata (0,2 mm de abertura) para induzir a hipertensão 2R1C (n = 5-10/grupo) ou a cirurgia fictícia [ratos normotensos (NT); n = 5-11/grupo] foi realizada. Três semanas após a inserção do clipe renal ou após a cirurgia fictícia, os ratos receberam microinjeções do vetor viral AAV2-CBA-MIF no NTS para aumentar a expressão de MIF na área ou de AAV2-CBA-eGFP, que promoveu a expressão de GFP (proteína fluorescente verde), que serviu como vetor controle. A pressão arterial e a frequência cardíaca foram registradas por telemetria e testes do barorreflexo foram realizados. Ao término dos experimentos, os encéfalos foram colhidos para imunohistoquímica ou RT-PCR. As microinjeções de MIF no NTS atenuaram a hipertensão em ratos 2R1C a partir de 2 semanas após a transfecção viral até o fim dos experimentos (4 semanas após a transfecção), (2R1C-MIF: 145 ± 7, vs. 2R1C-eGFP: 176 ± 9 mmHg; p < 0,05). MIF no NTS também melhorou a bradicardia reflexa (2R1C-MIF slope: -1,4 ± 0,3, vs. 2R1C-eGFP slope: -0,41 ± 0,3 bpm/mmHg; p < 0,05) e taquicardia reflexa (2R1C-MIF slope: -4,7 ± 0,6, vs. 2R1C-eGFP slope: -1,7 ± 0,3 bpm/mmHg; p < 0,05). A frequência cardíaca basal foi diminuída em ratos 2R1C-MIF. Em contraste com os ratos 2R1C, MIF super-expresso no NTS de ratos normotensos não produziu alteração na pressão arterial ou na função do barorreflexo. Como esperado, a transdução de MIF no NTS aumentou os níveis de RNAm para MIF no mesmo local (NT-MIF: 3,80 ± 0,97, vs. NT-eGFP: 1,00 ± 0,16 número de vezes e 2R1C-MIF: 3,53 ± 0,68, vs. 2R1C-eGFP: 0,88 ± 0,09 número de vezes; p < 0,05). Estes resultados sugerem que a expressão aumentada de MIF nos neurônios do NTS atenua a hipertensão, melhora a função do barorreflexo em ratos 2R1C, possivelmente através de uma ação anti-ANG II. / FAPESP: 2013/02607-0

Submitted by Daniele Amaral (daniee_ni@hotmail.com) on 2017-10-16T18:31:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseWIF.pdf: 2113715 bytes, checksum: 6432f11b933c0c20bd1a2e05f8ba6252 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (producaointelectual.bco@ufscar.br) on 2017-10-31T11:05:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseWIF.pdf: 2113715 bytes, checksum: 6432f11b933c0c20bd1a2e05f8ba6252 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (producaointelectual.bco@ufscar.br) on 2017-10-31T11:06:09Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseWIF.pdf: 2113715 bytes, checksum: 6432f11b933c0c20bd1a2e05f8ba6252 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-10-31T11:11:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseWIF.pdf: 2113715 bytes, checksum: 6432f11b933c0c20bd1a2e05f8ba6252 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-11 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) is the primary site of visceral afferents, such as baroreceptors and arterial chemoreceptors. Recent data from our laboratory have shown that the microinjection of acetylcholine (ACh) into the commissural moiety of the NTS (cNTS) of decorticated arterially-perfused in situ preparations of male juvenile rats did not change the sympathetic nerve activity (SNA), but increased the phrenic nerve activity (PNA). Furthermore, we demonstrated that the ACh-induced responses in cNTS involve the activation of both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. However, nicotinic receptors seem to play a more relevant role in the control of breathing, especially considering that such receptor antagonism promotes a decrease in the KCN- activated peripheral chemoreflex tachypneic response. However, the effects of specific nicotinic and muscarinic agonists in the cNTS on respiratory and sympathetic responses have not been studied yet. Once established the involvement of nicotinic receptors in the cNTS on peripheral chemoreflex ventilatory responses activated by cytotoxic hypoxia (KCN), we also evaluated the involvement of the cholinergic system in the cNTS on respiratory and sympathetic responses induced by hypercapnia or 24 h sustained hypoxia. Therefore, this project proposed to study the effects of selective activation of distinct cholinergic receptors in the cNTS on respiratory and sympathetic activities and the role of the cholinergic system in cNTS on sympathetic and respiratory activities reflex changes in response to hypercapnia or sustained hypoxia. We observed that the injection of both nicotinic and muscarinic agonists in the cNTS induces an increase in SNA and changes in the respiratory modulation pattern. The nicotinic agonist induces a decrease in respiratory frequency, as well as the blockade of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. It was also observed that the cholinergic agonists promote an increase in the amplitude and duration of the pre-inspiratory (pre-I) period of the hypoglossal nerve and also increased the amplitude of the vagus nerve. When it comes on the protocols involving hypoxia, we observed that the cholinergic antagonists injected into the cNTS of rats previously exposed to hypoxia promoted a decrease in sympathetic activity, increased respiratory frequency, decreased hypoglossal nerve amplitude, and decreased post-inspiratory peak amplitude of the vagus nerve, but only the muscarinic antagonist decreased phrenic nerve amplitude and hypoxia-induced hypoglossal nerve pre-I increase. Regarding to the experiments with hypercapnia, we verified that the nicotinic antagonist in the cNTS inhibited the hypercapnia-induced increase in pre-I of the hypoglossal nerve. In addition, the nicotinic antagonist injected into the cNTS also potentiated the recruitment of late-E activity from the abdominal nerve. Taken together, the responses observed with the cholinergic agonists and injected into the cNTS, as well as the antagonists upon hypoxia, suggest the involvement of cholinergic pathways in the cNTS in the modulation of sympathetic and respiratory responses to sustained hypoxia. On the other hand, it seems that only nicotinic receptors in the cNTS are involved in hypercapnia-induced increase in pre-inspiratory activity and active expiration. / O núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) é o sítio primário de aferências viscerais, como barorreceptores e quimiorreceptores arteriais. Estudos recentes do nosso laboratório demonstraram que, em preparações in situ, decorticadas e perfundidas intra-arterialmente, a microinjeção de acetilcolina (ACh) na porção comissural do NTS (NTSc) não alterou a atividade simpática (SNA), mas promoveu aumento da atividade do nervo frênico (PNA). Além disso, evidenciamos que as respostas induzidas pela ACh no NTSc envolvem a ativação dos receptores nicotínicos e muscarínicos. Contudo, os receptores nicotínicos parecem desempenhar um papel mais relevante no controle da respiração, principalmente considerando que o antagonismo de tais receptores promove uma redução da resposta taquipneica do quimiorreflexo periférico ativado pelo KCN. Entretanto, os efeitos de agonistas específicos nicotínicos e muscarínicos, bem como a inibição da inibição da degradação de ACh no NTSc sobre as respostas respiratórias e sobre a atividade simpática ainda não foram estudados. Sabendo-se da participação dos receptores nicotínicos do NTSc sobre as respostas ventilatórias dos quimiorreceptores periféricos ativados por hipóxia citotóxica (KCN), avaliamos também a participação do sistema colinérgico do NTSc sobre as respostas simpática e respiratória induzidas por hipercapnia ou hipóxia sustentada por 24 h. Portanto, este projeto se propôs a estudar o efeito da ativação seletiva de diferentes receptores colinérgicos no NTSc sobre as atividades simpática e respiratória e o papel do sistema colinérgico no NTSc sobre as alterações reflexas nas atividades simpática e respiratória em resposta à hipercapnia ou hipóxia sustentada por 24 h. Observamos que a injeção de agonistas tanto nicotínico quanto muscarínico no NTSc promovem aumento da SNA e modifica o seu padrão de modulação respiratória. O agonista nicotínico induz uma diminuição da frequência respiratória, assim como o bloqueio da enzima acetilcolinesterase. Também foi observado que os agonistas colinérgicos promovem um aumento na amplitude e duração do período préinspiratório (pre-I) do nervo hipoglosso e também aumento na amplitude do nervo vago. Com relação aos protocolos envolvendo hipóxia, observamos os antagonistas colinérgicos injetados no NTSc de ratos previamente expostos à hipóxia, promoveu diminuição da atividade simpática, aumento da frequência respiratória, diminuição da amplitude do nervo hipoglosso e diminuição da amplitude do pico pós-inspiratório do nervo vago, mas somente o antagonista muscarínico diminuiu a amplitude do nervo frênico e o aumento do pre-I do nervo hipoglosso induzido pela hipóxia. Com relação aos experimentos com hipercapnia, verificamos que o antagonista nicotínico no NTSc inibiu o aumento do pre-I do nervo hipoglosso induzido pela hipercapnia. Além disso, o antagonista nicotínico injetado no NTSc também potencializou o recrutamento de atividade late-E do nervo abdominal. Tomados em conjunto, as respostas observadas com os agonistas colinérgicos injetados no NTSc, bem como com os antagonistas mediante a hipóxia, sugerem a participação de vias colinérgica do NTSc na modulação das respostas simpática e respiratória à hipóxia sustentada. Por outro lado, apenas os receptores nicotínicos do NTSc parecem estar envolvidos com o aumento da atividade pré-inspiratória e da expiração ativa induzidos por hipercapnia. / FAPESP: 2013/22526-4

Submitted by Caroline Periotto (carol@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-12T13:08:23Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseGFFS.pdf: 4367999 bytes, checksum: 6123efb66e65def92c1b0e8d90fe8a20 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-13T14:17:50Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseGFFS.pdf: 4367999 bytes, checksum: 6123efb66e65def92c1b0e8d90fe8a20 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-13T14:17:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseGFFS.pdf: 4367999 bytes, checksum: 6123efb66e65def92c1b0e8d90fe8a20 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-13T14:18:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseGFFS.pdf: 4367999 bytes, checksum: 6123efb66e65def92c1b0e8d90fe8a20 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-01 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / In the last decades, obesity has become a worldwide epidemy. Excess of adipose tissue favors the development of associated diseases such as hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea and type II diabetes. Data from the literature have shown that obesity activates the reninangiotensin system (RAS), increases sympathetic nerve activity and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels, including in the central nervous system. However, the pathways and neural mechanisms involved in these responses are not yet fully elucidated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the cardiovascular and metabolic responses in high-fat diet (HFD) feeding rats. We also study the possible participation of the RAS and the immune system in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the obesity-induced cardiovascular changes. Finally, we tested if the resistance training (RT) performed at moderate intensity would be able to prevent obesityinduced cardiovascular changes. To achieve these goals, adult Holtzman rats (300-320 g) were fed with HFD (3.82 kcal/g and 26.4% total fat) or standard chow diet (SD; 2.25 kcal/g and 5.4% total fat) for 6 weeks. We observed higher blood levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, leptin and glucose and decreased insulin sensitivity after 6 weeks of HFD. There was an increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP), the sympathetic modulation of systolic blood pressure (SBP), heart rate (HR) and sympathovagal balance of pulse interval (PI), and an impairment in the bradycardic response of the baroreflex in HFD feeding animals. After 6 weeks of HFD, there was an increase in the mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukine-6 (IL-6), an increase in the mRNA expression of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and AT1 receptor, and a decrease in the expression of AT2 and Mas receptors. In agreement with the increased expression of cytokines in the NTS we have demonstrated higher GFAP immunoreactivity (specific marker of astrocytes) and higher number of positive cells for Iba-1 (specific marker for microglia) in the NTS in rats fed with HFD. The blockade of AT1 receptor in the NTS in animals fed with HFD promoted a decrease in MAP, reduced the sympathetic modulation in SBP, reduced the sympathovagal balance of PI and restored the bradycardic response of the baroreflex. The overexpression of the AT2 receptors in the NTS in rats fed with HFD reestablished HR, baroreflex sensitivity and sympathovagal balance of PI, and partially attenuated the increase in sympathetic modulation of SBP. These responses were associated with increased Mas receptor mRNA expression and reduction in the TNF-α mRNA expression in the NTS. However, these effects were not sufficient to restore the MAP in HFD feeding rats with AT2 receptors overexpression in the NTS. Finally, the RT prevented cardiovascular changes induced by HFD, including increases in MAP, sympathetic modulation of SBP, HR, sympathovagal balance of PI, and reduced baroreflex sensitivity. These responses were associated with increased expression of mRNA for components of protective RAS axis (AT2 and Mas receptors and ACE2), and the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10 as well as the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL -1β) in the NTS. Together, our data suggest that HFD promotes increases in plasma levels of glucose and leptin, with dysfunction in insulin sensitivity. HFD also promotes increases in blood pressure associated with increased sympathetic modulation in SBP, sympathovagal balance of PI, HR and baroreflex dysfunction. The neuroinflammatory process and an imbalance between the pressor and protective RAS axis in the NTS seem to be involved with the development/maintenance of the cardiovascular alterations induced by HFD. The TF performed at moderate intensity seems to be an important tool in preventing cardiovascular changes induced by HFD. / Nas últimas décadas a obesidade se tornou uma epidemia mundial. O excesso de tecido adiposo favorece o desenvolvimento de doenças associadas como a hipertensão arterial, apnéia obstrutiva do sono e diabetes tipo II. Dados da literatura mostram que a obesidade ativa o sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA), e aumenta a atividade do sistema nervoso simpáticoe os níveis de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, inclusive no sistema nervoso central. Entretanto, as vias e mecanismos neurais envolvidos nessas respostas ainda não estão completamente elucidados. Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar as respostas cardiovasculares e metabólicas em ratos alimentados com dieta hiperlipídica (DH). Estudamos também a possível participação do SRA e do sistema imune no núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) nas alterações cardiovasculares induzidas pela DH. Por fim, testamos se o treinamento de força (TF) realizado em intensidade moderada seria capaz de prevenir as alterações cardiovasculares induzidas pela DH. Para tanto, foram utilizados ratos Holtzman adultos (300 a 320 g) alimentados com DH (3,82 kcal/g e 26,4% de gorduras) ou dieta padrão (DP; 2,25 kcal/g e 5,4% de gorduras) por 6 semanas. Nossos resultados demonstraram maiores níveis de colesterol total, triacilgliceróis, leptina e glicose no sangue e menor sensibilidade à insulina após 6 semanas de DH. Houve um aumento da pressão arterial média (PAM), da modulação simpática da pressão arterial sistólica (PAS), da frequência cardíaca (FC) e do balanço simpatovagal do intervalo de pulso (IP) e menor resposta bradicárdica do barorreflexo em animais alimentados com DH. Após 6 semanas de DH, houve maior expressão do RNAm das citocinas pró-inflamatórias, fator de necrose tumoral-α (TNF- α) e interleucina-6 (IL-6), maior expressão do receptor AT1 e da enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA) e menor expressão dos receptores AT2 e Mas. Corroborando com a maior expressão de citocinas no NTS, foi demonstrado maior imunoreatividade para GFAP (marcador especifico de astrócitos) e maior número de células positivas para Iba-1 (marcador especifico para micróglias) no NTS de ratos alimentados com DH. O bloqueio do receptor AT1 no NTS de animais alimentados com DH promoveu queda na PAM, reduziu a modulação simpática na PAS, reduziu o balanço simpatovagal do IP e restabeleceu a resposta de bradicardia reflexa. A super-expressão de receptores AT2 no NTS de ratos alimentados com DH reestabeleceu a FC, a sensibilidade do barorreflexo e o balanço simpatovagal do IP, além de uma atenuação parcial na modulação simpática da PAS. Essas respostas foram associadas com o aumento da expressão do RNAm do receptor Mas e a redução na expressão do TNF-α no NTS. Porém, esses efeitos não foram suficientes para atenuar a PAM nos ratos com DH e super-expressão de receptores AT2 no NTS. Por fim, o TF preveniu as alterações cardiovasculares induzidas pela DH, incluindo o aumento da PAM, da modulação simpática da PAS, da FC, do balanço simpatovagal do IP, e a redução da sensibilidade do barorreflexo. Essas respostas foram associadas com um aumento na expressão do RNAm de componentes da via protetora do SRA (receptores AT2 e Mas e ECA2) e da citocina anti-inflamatória IL-10, bem como a redução de citocinas próinflamatórias (TNF-α e IL-1β) no NTS. Em conjunto, nossos dados sugerem que a DH promove aumentos na leptina plasmática e na glicemia, com disfunção na sensibilidade à insulina e no perfil lipídico. A DH também promove aumento na pressão arterial associada aos aumentos na modulação simpática na PAS, balanço simpatovagal do IP, FC e disfunção no barorreflexo. O processo neuroinflamatório e um desequilíbrio entre as vias pressora e protetora do SRA no NTS parecem estar envolvidos com o desenvolvimento/manutenção das alterações cardiovasculares encontradas em ratos alimentados com DH. O TF realizado em intensidade moderada parece ser uma importante ferramenta na prevenção das alterações cardiovasculares induzidas pela DH. / 2013/13118-0

The caudal solitary complex (cSC) is a cardiorespiratory integrative center in the dorsal medulla oblongata that plays a vital role in the central CO2-chemoreceptive network. Neurons in this area respond to hypercapnic acidosis (HA) by a depolarization of the membrane potential and increase in firing rate, however a definitive mechanism for this response remains unknown. Likewise, CO2-chemoreceptive neurons in the cSC respond to hyperoxia in a similar fashion, but via a free radical mediated mechanism. It remains unknown if the response to increased pO2 is merely an increase in redox signaling, or if it’s the result of a pathological state of redox stress. Importantly, free radical production is known to be stimulated by increasing pO2, and can be exacerbated downstream by the addition of CO2 and its subsequent acidosis. Conditions of hyperoxia in combination with HA can therefore become detrimental in several scenarios, including O2 toxicity seizures in divers and stranded submariners, as well as in cases of ischemia-reperfusion injury and sleep apneas. As such, we sought to not only determine how O2 and CO2 interact to affect cellular excitability in the cSC, but also if these cells exhibited increases in redox signaling and/or stress. We employed sharp-electrode intracellular electrophysiology to study whole-cell electrical responses to varied combinations of hyperoxia (0.4 0.95/1.95 ATA O2) and HA (0.05 0.1 ATA CO2). Additionally, we used fluorescence microscopy under similar conditions to study changes in the production rates of various free radicals, including superoxide (˙O2-), nitric oxide (˙NO), and a downstream aggregate pool of CO2/H+-dependent reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). Finally, we used several colorimetric assays to measure markers of oxidative and nitrosative stress, including malondialdehyde, 3-nitrotyrosine, and protein carbonyls. Our hypothesis for these experiments was that hyperoxia and HA alone could produce effects, but would be more pronounced when used together. As such, we saw that ~89% of cells tested that were sensitive to both hyperoxia and HA showed larger firing rate responses to HA during an increased background O2 (0.9 and/or 1.9 ATA) after showing a smaller response or no response to HA during control levels O2 (0.4 ATA). Additionally, we noted that the rate of ˙O2- fluorescence increased in response to hyperoxia, but only during pharmacological inhibition of its reactions with ˙NO and SOD. Likewise, the rate of ˙NO fluorescence increased during hyperoxia compared to control O2, but only during pharmacological scavenging of ˙O2-. Downstream, our aggregate pool of RONS showed increased rates of fluorescence during both hyperoxia alone and HA in control O2, however the most prominent increases were seen during hypercapnic hyperoxia. Finally, no significant effects were seen when probing for markers of redox stress in response to hyperoxia and hypercapnic hyperoxia. Overall, these results suggest that the increased excitability seen in cSC neurons during hypercapnic hyperoxia is the result of physiological redox signaling rather than pathological redox stress. Further research needs to be done to determine how this redox mechanism is specifically resulting in increased cellular excitability.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) treats patients with drug-resistant epilepsy, depression and heart failure, but the mechanisms responsible are uncertain. The mild stimulus intensities used in chronic VNS suggest activation of myelinated primary visceral afferents projecting to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). Here, we monitored the activity of second and higher order NTS neurons in response to peripheral vagal activation using therapeutic VNS criteria. A bipolar stimulating electrode activated the left cervical vagus nerve, and stereotaxically placed single tungsten electrodes recorded unit activity from the left caudomedial NTS of chloralose-anaesthetized rats. High-intensity single electrical stimuli established vagal afferent conduction velocity (myelinated A-type or unmyelinated C-type) as well as synaptic order (second vs. higher order using paired electrical stimuli) for inputs to single NTS neurons. Then, VNS treatment was applied. A mid-collicular knife cut (KC) divided the brainstem from all supramedullary regions to determine their contribution to NTS activity. Our chief findings indicate that the KC reduced basal spontaneous activity of second-order NTS neurons receiving myelinated vagal input by 85%. In these neurons, acute VNS increased activity similarly in Control and KC animals. Interestingly, the KC interrupted VNS activation of higher order NTS neurons and second-order NTS neurons receiving unmyelinated vagal input, indicating that supramedullary descending projections to NTS are needed to amplify the peripheral neuronal signal from VNS. The present study begins to define the pathways activated during VNS and will help to better identify the central nervous system contributions to the therapeutic benefits of VNS therapy. KEY POINTS: Vagus nerve stimulation is routinely used in the clinic to treat epilepsy and depression, despite our uncertainty about how this treatment works. For this study, the connections between the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and the higher brain regions were severed to learn more about their contribution to activity of these neurons during stimulation. Severing these brain connections reduced baseline activity as well as reducing stimulation-induced activation for NTS neurons receiving myelinated vagal input. Higher brain regions play a significant role in maintaining both normal activity in NTS and indirect mechanisms of enhancing NTS neuronal activity during vagus nerve stimulation.