This study tested a model of objectification theory proposed by Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) as it applies to disordered eating in a sample of dancers and non-dancers. The methods in this study are based on a previous test of objectification theory done by Tiggeman and Slater (2001). Two samples of participants were given a survey to measure self-objectification and its anticipated consequences. The first sample included 155 women who participated in either ballet, modern, jazz, or hip-hop dance. The second sample included 199 women enrolled in undergraduate classes at the University of Central Florida during the fall semester of 2004. Participants in the two samples did not score differently on the measure of self-objectification. However, dancers scored significantly higher on the self-surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, flow, awareness of internal body states, and disordered eating measures than the non-dancers. None of the proposed mediating variables were found to mediate the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating in either sample.

Investigating how a media literacy education intervention tool affects women’s self-objectification, self-esteem, and body satisfaction was the first purpose of the study. Secondly, participants’ perceptions of media literacy education interventions and of media imagery were explored. Objectification theory was used as a framework for understanding media imagery effects. One hundred and eighty three participants completed the online study. Participants were mainly recruited from the undergraduate Psychology participant pool at the University of Saskatchewan. The control group (n = 99) viewed a compilation of magazine advertisements and completed measures of self-objectification (i.e., the Self-Objectification Questionnaire), self-esteem (i.e., the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale), body satisfaction (i.e., the Body Image States Scale), and media attitudes (i.e., the Media Attitudes Questionnaire). The intervention group (n= 84) received a media literacy education intervention tool (i.e., the Evolution video, by Dove), viewed magazine advertisements, and completed the same measures of self-objectification, self-esteem, body satisfaction, and media attitudes. The intervention group also completed open-ended questions about their perceptions of the intervention. Analyses included independent t-tests, Pearson correlations, descriptive statistics, and thematic analysis. Results indicated no significant differences between the control and intervention conditions for self-esteem, self-objectification, body-satisfaction, and media attitudes. Although significant correlations were found, most were in the direction that did not align with the predictions. A descriptive analysis indicated that women’s perceptions of themselves are negatively affected by media material. The thematic analysis demonstrated that viewing the intervention was both positively and negatively perceived. Results and limitations of the current study are discussed. Implications for practice and future research are also identified

Past research has examined body image and eating-related outcomes of exposure to mass media. This research has generally found that such exposure is a significant risk factor for body image disturbance and disordered eating. However, a causal relationship has not yet been firmly established. Several theories, including objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), have attempted to explain this relationship with some success. The current study had two primary goals. First, it was designed to further explore the potential causal relationship between mass media exposure and body image and affect disturbance. Second, it attempted to go beyond individuals' body image and explore how exposure to objectifying media influences people's judgments of others. Briefly, the results revealed that exposure to media that objectify women was related to state body image disturbance, anger, and anxiety. Gender and internalization of cultural appearance ideals frequently played an important role in these relationships. Exposure to objectifying media did not predict participants' judgments of women's competence or attractiveness. However, interesting gender differences were observed.

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Researchers have traditionally used two measures of self-objectification, the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998) and the Objectified Body Consciousness Body Surveillance subscale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996), to demonstrate that self-objectification is related to body shame and dissatisfaction, appearance anxiety, decreased awareness of internal states, decreased flow experiences, disordered eating, depression and sexual dysfunction. Although the SOQ and OBC have been used widely, they also have several limitations, including problems with missing data, lack of generalizability, and concerns about content validity. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a new measure of self-objectification called the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale (SOBBS). Male and female college students (473 women and 202 men) completed an online questionnaire including a pool of items designed to measure self-objectification. The item pool was constructed through focus groups and consultation with subject matter experts. Participants also completed two existing measures of self-objectification and related constructs (i.e., interpersonal sexual objectification, body image, disordered eating behavior, depressive symptoms, and sexual functioning), and a subset of participants completed the new measure at a two-week interval. A 12-item, 2-factor measure of self-objectification was derived through exploratory factor analysis. Overall, the newly developed measure demonstrated excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Data also supported the convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the scale as a measure of self-objectification for women and men. Implications for research in the area of self-objectification and for the prevention and treatment of eating disorders will be discussed.

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This study investigates preadolescent girls’ interpretations of images of and messages about women’s bodies presented in both traditional and online media in the American cultural context. Using qualitative methods including in-depth interviews, email diaries, and digital photo collages, this study gives voice to girls aged nine to eleven from diverse racial and socioeconomic backgrounds so that they might tell their stories about interacting with media that is relevant to their relationships with their bodies. Employing objectification theory as well as concepts from the cultural studies tradition, the findings suggest that the process of becoming a female body in the 21st-century American media environment is far more complex than a simple linear, cause-effect equation can express. Differences among girls in terms of media use, degree of media criticism, age, and interpersonal discursive environments moderate their relationships to mediated imagery and to their bodies. The findings also describe the mediated bodily ideal that is most relevant to preadolescent girls, the celebrity girls who embody this ideal, the ways in which girls experience self-objectification and body surveillance, and the nature of girls’ conversations with friends and family members about body-related topics. The study concludes by providing recommendations to concerned researchers, educators, and parents.

#Thinspiration is an online trend that depicts thin-ideal media content specifically found on the social medium Instagram. The images found under the #thinspiration intend to inspire weight loss while encouraging and/or glorifying dangerous behaviors that are usually attributed to eating disorders including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN) and eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS). This study provides a content analysis of thinspiration imagery on the popular social networking site Instagram. A set of 300 randomly selected images was coded. Images tended to objectify women and sexualize them with a focus on bony and extremely thin women. Results seemed to point to harmful effects and users is the #thinspiration community view and contribute sexually suggestive content that objectifies females. Please be cautious when reading this paper as it includes media that could possibly be a trigger to those dealing with body image or eating disorders.

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