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Perhaps one of the most embodied of human experiences, sexuality can be greatly affected by the way in which women perceive their body. Historically, scholars have dedicated their attention to negative facets of body image and how it is associated with poorer female sexual health, while mostly overlooking the positive aspects of this relationship. Similarly, although ageing is a key factor to consider when examining body image and sexual health, only a dearth of studies has attempted to describe the experiences of non-university aged women. To fill these gaps, this research program was designed to investigate the associations between positive and negative aspects of body image and explore how each contributes to sexual health in age-varied samples of adult women. Two survey studies were carried out. A total of 215 heterosexual women, aged 18 to 88, participated in the first study. Despite a high statistical overlap between body appreciation (i.e., positive body image) and body dissatisfaction (i.e., negative body image), the former was found to be a greater contributing factor to indicators of sexual health. Specifically, body appreciation was related to improved sexual function, lower sexuality-related distress, and higher sexual satisfaction, even when controlling for body mass index. Although many changes occur to the body as women get older, body appreciation was unrelated to age in this sample. Nevertheless, it was shown to moderate the negative association between age and sexual satisfaction, such that older women with high appreciation for their body reported being significantly more sexually satisfied than those with low body appreciation. While the first study explored the body image and sexual health experiences of adult women in general, the second article focused on the mechanisms through which one is related to the other in midlife and older women specifically. A total of 193 heterosexual women, aged 50 to 83, completed an online survey. Support was provided for the use of objectification theory (Frederickson & Roberts, 1997), a well-established theoretical framework in body image research, in explaining sexual health in midlife and older women. Body self-consciousness during sex partially explained the relationship between body shame, appearance anxiety, and sexual function, distress, and satisfaction. High body appreciation mitigated the detrimental effect of self-objectification constructs (i.e., body surveillance, appearance anxiety) and body self-consciousness during sex on midlife and older women's sexual health. Overall, based on the results of this dissertation, body appreciation appears to serve as a protective factor for improved sexual health. Similar to sexual satisfaction and sexual distress, positive and negative aspects of body image are related, but nonetheless distinct, concepts that should not be used interchangeably. Furthermore, midlife and older women's body image and sexual experiences differ from that of their younger counterparts; systematic generalisation of findings from one group to the other is thus unwarranted. Consideration for these various distinctions is not only required for increased understanding of the complex links between body image and sexuality across adulthood, but also relevant to guide prevention efforts at a sociocultural level and clinical interventions at the individual level.

abstract: The promulgation of the thin-ideal is associated with bulimia, dieting, supplement use, negative affect, and body dissatisfaction. “Fitspiration” was created as an “antidote” to the thin-ideal through the promotion of healthy eating and exercise; however, research indicates Fitspiration continues to promote the thin-ideal with similarly detrimental outcomes. Recently, research has shifted from a focus on body disturbance to concepts of positive body image (Halliwell, 2015), often researched through the concept of body appreciation. While the research is limited, a few studies have shown increases in body appreciation and mood after viewing body positive images. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to experimentally examine the impact of exposure to body positive and Fitspiration Instagram images on the body satisfaction, body appreciation, and mood of undergraduate women. Participants were 98 female undergraduate students (18-29 years old) currently attending Arizona State University. Participants were randomly assigned to view Fitspiration, Body Positive, or appearance neutral Instagram images. Dependent variables of state body appreciation, state body dissatisfaction, and state mood were measured using Visual Analogue Scales. Trait thin-ideal internalization, trait social comparison, and body mass index (BMI) were included as covariates. Qualitative short-answer questions were included as an exploratory aim. A one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to examine group differences in post-test scores followed by post-hoc analyses using the Bonferroni correction when significant. After controlling for baseline score, trait thin-ideal internalization, trait social comparison, and BMI, post-test body appreciation scores within Fitspiration condition were significantly lower than the control (MD= 9.818, SE=3.743, p=.031) and Body Positive condition (MD=9.372, SE=3.492, p=0.26). After controlling for baseline score, trait thin-ideal internalization, trait social comparison, and BMI, the Body Positive condition demonstrated significantly higher post-test body satisfaction scores than the control (MD= 11.134, SE=3.093, p=.002) and Fitspiration condition (MD=17.312, SE=3.092, p=<.001). After controlling for baseline scores, mean post-test positive mood scores within the Fitspiration group were significantly lower than the Body Positive condition (MD=-0.378, SE=.135, p=.019). There were no differences in post-test negative mood across conditions. Findings suggest short-term exposure to body positive images may improve body appreciation, Body Positivity, and positive mood among undergraduate females. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Exercise and Wellness 2020

Recently, researchers have gained an increased interest in examining activities that promote a more positive body image among women. Some activities such as yoga and dance have proven to be positively associated with body appreciation, both directly and through reduced self-surveillance. Theater practice has been shown to be beneficial for several facets of mental health; however, until now no research has been conducted on its’ association with body appreciation or self-surveillance. The present study aimed to examine the relationship between theater practice and body appreciation, controlling for BMI. The study also investigated the relationship between theater practice and self-surveillance, and if self-surveillance works as a mediator between theater practice and body appreciation. Participants of 231 women aged 18-40 years (M = 27.65, SD = 5.76) answered a questionnaire on theater practice, body appreciation and self-surveillance. Path analysis revealed that theater practice had no relation to body appreciation or self-surveillance when controlling for BMI. Self-surveillance and BMI were, however, negatively associated with body appreciation. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. / Den senaste tiden har forskare fått ett ökat intresse för att undersöka aktiviteter som främjar en mer positiv kroppsuppfattning hos kvinnor. En del aktiviteter såsom yoga och dans har visat sig vara positivt korrelerade med kroppsuppskattning, både direkt och genom minskad självövervakning. Teaterutövande har visat sig främja olika aspekter av mental hälsa, men hittills har ingen forskning gjorts om dess samband med kroppsuppskattning eller självövervakning. Denna studie syftade till att undersöka sambandet mellan teaterutövande och kroppsuppskattning, samt kontrollera för BMI. Studien undersökte också sambandet mellan teaterutövande och självövervakning, samt om självövervakning fungerar som en mediator mellan teaterutövande och kroppsuppskattning. Deltagare bestående av 231 kvinnor i åldrarna 18–40 år (M = 27,65, SD = 5,76) svarade på frågeformulär om teaterutövande, kroppsuppskattning och självövervakning. Stiganalys visade att teaterutövande inte hade något samband till kroppsuppskattning eller självövervakning vid kontroll av BMI. Självövervakning och BMI var emellertid negativt korrelerade med kroppsuppskattning. Teoretiska och praktiska implikationer diskuteras.

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Kan kroppsuppskattning och instagramanvändning predicera Ortorexi? Ortorexi är ett växande fenomen som innebär maniskt hälsosamt ätande som kan påverka ens livsstil negativt. Även instagramanvändning blir allt mer populärt och används i allt högre grad av dagens unga vuxna i Sverige. Aktiv användning av social media har associerats med en sämre kroppsbild. Den här studiens syfte var att ta reda på om grad av kroppsuppskattning och instagramanvändning predicerar ortorexi. En enkätundersökning genomfördes på 228 studenter vid Örebro universitet. Resultatet visade att människor som har ett högre missnöje med sin kropp har större benägenhet att vara fixerade av att äta hälsosamt. Vi såg även att människor som använder instagram i högre utsträckning har en större fixering av att äta hälsosamt. Studiens fynd tillsammans med förslag till vidare forskning inom ortorexi diskuteras. / Could body appreciation and Instagram use predict Orthorexia? Orthorexia is a growing phenomena that means a manic degree of eating healthy that could affect one’s lifestyle negatively. Instagram usage is becoming increasingly more popular and are used more and more frequently among the younger adults in Sweden. An active use of social media has been associated with a lower appreciation to one’s body. This study aims to find out if the degree of body appreciation and Instagram usage predicts Orthorexia. A survey was conducted on 228 students at Örebro University. The results showed that people that have a higher degree of dissatisfaction to one’s body are more likely to be fixated of eating healthy. We also noticed that people that used Instagram more frequently have a higher fixation of eating healthy. The findings of the study together with suggestions for further research within orthorexia is discussed.

In recent years, researchers have become interested in the concept of a positive body image. Interpersonal relationships influence the acceptance and appreciation of the body. However, prior studies on positive body image has almost exclusively focused on studying general instead of specific relationships. The present study sought to investigate whether the association between secure attachment to friends and body appreciation is moderated by the personality trait Extraversion in young adults. The participants were 194 men and women aged 18 to 25 years (M = 22, SD = 1.78) who completed a questionnaire measuring body appreciation, secure attachment to friends and Extraversion. The results of a hierarchal regression showed that secure attachment to friends did not predict body appreciation and that Extraversion did not have a moderating effect. Extraversion was, however, positively associated with body appreciation, above and beyond the effect of sex, BMI and parental socioeconomic status. These findings contribute to a richer understanding of the potential advantages of including Extraversion when studying body image in young adults. / Begreppet positiv kroppsbild har under den senaste tiden börjat att fånga forskares intresse. Acceptans och uppskattning av sin kropp påverkas av interpersonella relationer. Tidigare studier på positiv kroppsbild har dock nästan uteslutande fokuserat på att studera generella istället för specifika relationer. Denna studie syftade till att utforska huruvida trygg anknytning till vänner hos unga vuxna påverkar kroppsuppskattningen och om sambandet modereras av personlighetsdraget Extraversion. Deltagarna var 194 kvinnor och män i åldrarna 18 till 25 år (M = 22, SD = 1.78) som besvarade en enkät gällande kroppsuppskattning, trygg anknytning till vänner och extraversion. Resultatet av en hierarkisk regression visade att trygg anknytning till vänner inte förutspådde kroppsuppskattning och att extraversion inte hade en modererande effekt. Extraversion var dock positivt korrelerat med kroppsuppskattning, även efter det att kön, BMI och föräldrars socioekonomiska status kontrollerats för. Dessa fynd bidrar till en större förståelse för de potentiella fördelarna med att inkludera extraversion vid studier av positiv kroppsbild bland unga vuxna.

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Is people’s appreciation for their bodies lower when they engage in more appearance comparison online and is this relation differs as a function of age? Previous research shows that body appreciation is important for people’s well-being and frequent appearance comparison is seen to be related to lower well-being. Research also shows age differences in body appreciation and the tendency to engage in comparison with others. There is a lack of studies looking at body appreciation that includes older people and men. Online social comparison has only been measured using narrow definitions of comparative behaviors. The current study aims to assess if lower body appreciation is seen for people who compare themselves more online and if this is moderated by age. An online survey was distributed to Swedish citizens over the age of 16. The survey asked about people’s body appreciation and the different online appearance-comparison behaviors they perform. A moderation analysis was conducted and showed that lower body appreciation is related to higher engagement in appearance comparison online and this relation was stronger for older people. This study expands the knowledge about body appreciation with a sample that is more representative of the Swedish population. It also expands the knowledge of how body appreciation is related to online social comparison. People generally seem to experience lower appreciation for their bodies when they engage in more online appearance comparison and the relationship is stronger for older people. / Är personers uppskattning för deras kropp lägre när de jämför sitt utseende mer med andra online och ifall relation ändras som en funktion av ålder? Tidigare forskning har visat att kroppsuppskattning är viktigt för personers välmående och frekventa jämförelser med andra har visats vara relaterade till ett försämrat välmående. Forskning har också visat att det finns åldersskillnader i både kroppsuppskattning och ens tendens att jämföra sig med andra. Det finns lite forskning som tittar på kroppsuppskattning bland äldre personer och män. Personers utseende-jämförelse online har tidigare enbart blivit mätt med smala mått som tittar på enstaka jämförelsebeteenden. Vår studie siktar på att undersöka om personer har lägre kroppsuppskattning när de jämför sitt utseende med andra oftare online och om den här relationen modereras av ålder. En online-enkät delades ut med frågor gällande kroppsuppskattning och frågor gällande olika typer av jämförelsebeteenden folk kan utföra online. Enkäten delades ut till svenska medborgare över 16 års ålder. En moderationsanalys genomfördes och visade att kroppsuppskattning var lägre bland personer som jämförde sin kropp oftare online och relationen var som starkast för äldre personer. Den här studien tillför mer kunskap om kroppsuppskattning med ett urval som är mer representativt för Sveriges befolkning. Studien tillför mer kunskap kring kopplingen mellan kroppsuppskattning och utseende-jämförelser online. Generellt så uppskattar folk sin kropp mindre när de ofta jämför sitt utseende med andra online och relationen var starkast för äldre personer.