Climate change is ecologically and socially complex, deemed the most important issue of our generation. Through this dissertation I have approached climate change research through an interdisciplinary perspective, investigating how this phenomenon will affect marine ecological systems, how we can better develop experimental systems to answer ecological questions, and how we can effectively educate about this issue. In Chapter 2, I provided accessible alternatives for researching the effects of climate change (elevated temperatures and pCO2) on marine ecosystems. I designed, built, and troubleshooted two accurate and inexpensive climate-controlled experimental systems capable of maintaining target conditions: a temperature-controlled system and an ocean acidification system. The temperature-controlled system was designed to manipulate experimental tank temperatures indirectly by controlling the temperature in a surrounding water bath, which buffered fluctuations and resulted in a high level of control. The ocean acidification experimental system was designed to elevate normally fluctuating pCO2 levels by a constant factor, which allowed pCO2 to fluctuate as expected in natural environments and made it more ecologically relevant than active pCO2-controlled systems. In Chapter 3, I experimentally tested the morphological responses of southern ribbed mussels Geukensia granosissima to two simultaneous stressors (elevated temperatures and the presence of water-borne predation cues from blue crab Callinectes sapidus) and if any effects of these treatments led to differences in handling times by predatory crabs. Bivalves may become more susceptible to predation as increased temperatures decrease the protection afforded by their shells, but few studies have tested the effects of elevated temperatures on inducible defenses in bivalves. Results showed that chronic heat stress can have detrimental morphological effects on intertidal mussels. Mussels reared in elevated temperatures manifested elongated shell shapes, exhibited a disruption of the predator effect on inducible defenses, and experienced decreased predator handling times. The observed responses to elevated temperatures could make southern ribbed mussels more vulnerable to predation. In Chapter 4, I experimentally tested the morphological responses of southern ribbed mussels to elevated pCO2 levels and the presence of water-borne predation cues from blue crabs, and if these effects led to differences in handling times by predatory crabs. Elevated pCO2 can have negative effects on bivalves’ morphology and physiology, but the consequences of these effects on predator-prey interactions are still unclear. I found that adult southern ribbed mussels’ inducible defenses were not affected by a medium-term exposure to elevated pCO2. Mussels grew more in shell length and width as a response to predation cues, independent of pCO2 conditions. However, and unexpectedly, mussels reared under elevated pCO2 exhibited greater growth in shell width independent of predator treatment, driving mussels reared in the presence of a predator under elevated pCO2 conditions to develop rounder shapes. On average, these effects on mussel morphometrics did not affect crab handling times, but mussels reared in the presence of a predator under elevated pCO2 conditions had highly variable handling times. It is important to consider the complexity of animal physiology, morphology, and interspecies relationships when making deductions on predator-prey relationships in a changing ocean. In Chapter 5, I analyzed the effectiveness of using an interdisciplinary approach to climate change education. Literature suggests that an interdisciplinary instructional framework in an outdoor setting, using tools from the experiential, active, and inquiry- and place-based learning approaches, as well as the socioscientific issues pedagogical framework, would be an excellent approach for climate change education. I found that students: increased their content knowledge on climate change causes and consequences, exhibited a deeper understanding of climate change through the words they used to describe it, and corrected common climate change misconceptions. This work can serve as an example for the development of effective climate change programs that uses already available instructional materials with intentional interdisciplinary goals. Our search to understand how marine ecosystems will cope with a changing climate has emphasized emerging issues in the way we gather data, the questions we seek to answer through research, and how we translate science of social importance to the public. Through this dissertation I strove to seek the answers to some of these questions and provide feasible solutions to some of the problems in climate change research and education through an interdisciplinary approach. As science continues to move towards answering questions of concern for both science and society, science research is moving towards more interdisciplinary approaches. This dissertation is an example of how this can be an efficient and comprehensive approach.

Massive amounts of 13 C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean more than once during the early Paleogene, providing a geological framework for understanding future perturbations in carbon cycling, including ocean acidification. To assess the number of events and their impact on deep-sea carbonate accumulation, I have studied carbonate ooze units of the upper Paleocene-lower Eocene, which were deposited on a subsiding flank of the East Pacific Rise (ODP Site 1215). From this record several proxies were used to ascertain changes in carbonate dissolution: carbonate content, foraminiferal test fragmentation, and planktic/benthic foraminiferal ratio. Based on these analyses, 1 observe that carbonate preservation generally increased from the late Paleocene (56 Ma) through the early Eocene (51.5 Ma), after which it became poor to negligible. This trend was punctuated by four short-term intervals characterized by carbonate dissolution and pronounced negative d 18 O and d 13 C excursions. It is inferred that these were anomalously warm periods (hyperthermals) caused by massive and relative fast 13 C-depleted carbon injections. These correspond to the PETM (∼55.5 Ma), H1/ETM-2 (∼53.7 Ma), I1 (∼53.2 Ma), and K/X (∼52.5 Ma) events. I also calculated carbonate, planktic, and benthic foraminiferal mass accumulation rates for the Site 1215. These were used to comprehensively examine the history of carbonate accumulation in the equatorial Pacific Ocean throughout the early Paleogene. I deduce that in the long-term (>10 5 yr) the lysocline and calcite compensation depth (CCD) generally deepened between 55.4 and 51.5 Ma; but rapidly (≤10 5 yr) shoaled and subsequently overcompensated during and after the four intervals of massive carbon injection. Planktic foraminiferal assemblages found in the record of Site 1215 follow a predicted pattern for selective dissolution. Species of Acarinina are preferentially preserved over Morozovella, which are preferentially preserved over Subbotina, Igorina and Globanomalina. A tiny and previously overlooked species, Praetenuitella antica n.sp, is formally described in this manuscript. This species is also resistant to dissolution. The findings of this study provide firm constraints to model the short and long-term carbon cycle dynamics during the early Paleogene

The carbon dioxide (CO2) system is the primary buffer in seawater which controls oceanic pH. Changes in the marine CO2 system affect a number of processes such as metal speciation, mineral saturation states, auditory responses in fish, and primary productivity rates. Increased atmospheric concentrations of CO2 from human activities (e.g. burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement production) has led to a global decrease in surface ocean pH termed anthropogenic ocean acidification. One particular concern in response to increased oceanic CO2 is a substantial decrease in the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) saturation states, ΩCaCO3. The long-term physiological effects of ocean acidification and decreased ΩCaCO3 on marine biota are currently subjects of intensive global investigation. Consequently improved methods are needed to facilitate evaluations of the evolving CO2 system chemistry and the responses of marine organisms to those changes. Currently two of four measureable chemical parameters (pH, dissolved inorganic carbon, fugacity of CO2, and total alkalinity) are required for full characterization of the inorganic CO2 system; carbonate ion concentrations ([CO3 2-]) can, for example, be calculated from paired measurements of pH-DIC and pH-TA. The primary objective of this dissertation is to refine a method for directly determining [CO3 2-] using a single measurement, the distinctive ultraviolet absorbance spectra of Pb(II) species in seawater. The technique is fast, methodologically simple, and suitable for routine use in laboratory and shipboard studies. It is, as well, suitable for analyses using autonomous instrumentation. My studies began with an investigation of lead carbonate (PbCO3 0) complexation in synthetic media (at 25 °C between 0.001 to 5.0 molal ionic strength) to evaluate factors that control Pb(II) speciation, and thereby Pb(II) spectra, in seawater. Since laboratory investigations of Pb(II) speciation in seawater require potentiometric measurements of seawater pH, my dissertation includes development of a novel spectrophotometric method for calibrating pH electrodes directly in seawater. This spectrophotometric electrode calibration enables improved assessment of the extent to which electrode behavior is Nernstian and the influence of salinity on electrode calibrations. In addition, for the first time at sea, [CO3 2-] was directly determined in the Arctic and the Eastern Pacific Oceans using the Pb(II) method. These field studies allowed assessment of the consistency between direct [CO3 2-] determinations and carbonate determined using conventional CO2 system measurements. Finally, using techniques from my evaluation of lead speciation, as well as my electrode calibration development and field studies, additional laboratory studies were used to increase carbonate measurement sensitivity and applicability over a wider range of salinity.

The Late Rhaetian (Late Triassic) extinction event is characterised by shelled species showing a reduction in size, and thickness, which together with changed mineralogy is thought to be as a result of increased atmospheric pCO2 levels. Similar morphological changes have been demonstrated for extant species exposed experimentally to high CO2 leading to the hypothesis that Late Triassic extinctions were linked with global ocean acidification and increased oceanic palaeotemperatures. Consequently, the aim of this present work was to test this ocean acidification hypothesis by investigating morphological changes in selected shelled fossil species across this extinction event, and attempt to correlate them with changes in environmental temperature and pCO2. The abundance, size, shell thickness and mineralogy was determined for three common species, the bivalves Liostrea hisingeri and Plagiostoma gigantea and the ostracod Ogmoconchella aspinata collected from Triassic and Jurassic rocks from two locations in southwest England. Palaeotemperature was reconstructed from examination of these fossils and from the literature and atmospheric pCO2 estimated from published accounts. The shell size of bivalves increased during periods of high pCO2 and high palaeotemperature at both locations. Ostracod carapace sizes increased at St Audrie’s Bay but decreased at Lyme Regis during periods of high pCO2, while ostracod carapace size decreased during periods of high palaeotemperature at St Audrie’s Bay. However, ostracod shell thickness increased and decreased as pCO2 increased but shows no relationship with palaeotemperature at either location. Laboratory experiments on the effect of elevated pCO2 and elevated temperature on three modern species of ostracod was carried out. Modern species Leptocythere sp. and L. castanea subjected to either elevated pCO2 or elevated temperature showed increased dissolution, however size and thickness did not significantly change. In the same experimental conditions L. lacertosa showed increased dissolution however size continued to increase, while thickness was maintained. Comparison of fossil bivalve and ostracod data to modern high pCO2 and high temperature experiments illustrates some correlations to the modern experiments results indicating high pCO2 and high palaeotemperature conditions could have been occurring during the Triassic-Jurassic boundary interval. From the evidence presented, combined with an appropriate trigger (CAMP volcanism), it can be concluded that both ocean acidification and palaeotemperature were contributing to the species adaptations identified across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary interval.

Submitted by Haroudo Xavier Filho (haroudo.xavierfo@ufpe.br) on 2016-07-01T12:51:52Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESE_Gaspar_FL_2015.pdf: 3846981 bytes, checksum: 5c71e8dea7a17180048b9ef119b20236 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-01T12:51:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESE_Gaspar_FL_2015.pdf: 3846981 bytes, checksum: 5c71e8dea7a17180048b9ef119b20236 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-10-28 / CAPES / A plataforma continental Pernambucana é caracterizada pela oligotrofia e estabilidade térmica ao longo do ano influenciada pela corrente Norte do Brasil, que traz águas quentes e ricas em CO2 para a plataforma continental do nordeste brasileiro. Dentre os principais rios translitorâneos de Pernambuco estão os Rios Capibaribe e Jaboatão que recebem os efluentes domésticos do Recife e região metropolitana, o que causa alterações nos ciclos naturais do carbono. Desta maneira, foram avaliadas a variabilidade da pCO2 nos estuários do Capibaribe e de Barra de Jangadas assim como na plataforma continental interna do Estado de Pernambuco. Para análise nos estuários foram realizadas coletas durante a maré baixa, bimestralmente de Novembro de 2010 a Setembro de 2011. O estuário do Capibaribe apresentou os valores mais elevados de alcalinidade total (AT) e carbono inorgânico total (TCO2), com diferença significativa entre os dois rios. As médias anuais de alcalinidade encontradas foram 1649 ± 390 μmol kg-1 no Capibaribe e 1557±315 μmol kg-1 em Barra de Jangadas. Em relação a pCO2, os estuários apresentaram supersaturação de CO2 em relação a atmosfera durante todo o ano, com médias de 3317 ± 2034 μatm no Capibaribe e 6018 ± 4589 μatm em Barra de Jangadas. Estes valores durante o período chuvoso variaram entre os estuários, com diminuição na pCO2 no Capibaribe e aumentos de até 300% dos valores de pCO2 em Barra de Jangadas. A fim de se obter uma melhor avaliação da distribuição espacial da pCO2 na plataforma interna, foi construído um equipamento para a medição contínua e direta da pCO2 na água como alternativa de baixo-custo em relação aos fabricados importados. A primeira campanha realizada aconteceu em Dezembro de 2014, partindo do porto do Recife em direção ao estuário de Barra de Jangadas. Apesar de o período seco ser o de maior produtividade primária a região apresentou-se oligotrófica, com picos de chl-a (8.4 mg m3) próximo ao Capibaribe. Apenas uma pequena área apresentou subsaturação de CO2 em relação à atmosfera, com o valor mínimo registrado de 376,6 μatm. Foi identificada uma elevada fugacidade de CO2 (fCO2) na área da plataforma interna, com média de 474,33 ± 66,57 μatm, resultando em um fluxo médio para a atmosfera de 8,5 ± 6,82 mmol C m-2d-1. A partir dos resultados obtidos foi proposto um modelo para predizer a fCO2 a partir de valores de salinidade e temperatura para a plataforma interna durante o verão. Uma análise espacial e sazonal mais abrangente dos parâmetros do sistema carbonato na plataforma interna foi realizada utilizando-se dados de AT e TCO2 em áreas com e sem influência de rios entre os anos de 2013 e 2014. As médias da pCO2 e do pH na plataforma interna foram de 449 ± 45 μatm e 8,00 ± 0,03 respectivamente. Os parâmetros analisados foram influenciados pela distância da costa, o que resultou na elaboração de modelos para a predição de AT, TCO2, pCO2, pH, ΩCa e ΩAr a partir de dados de temperatura, salinidade e longitude. A região apresenta elevada alcalinidade inclusive na área influenciada por rios, onde foi encontrada a menor média de AT 2358 ± 28 μmol kg-1. A região apresenta, em curto prazo, baixa vulnerabilidade ao processo de acidificação oceânica. Os valores encontrados de pCO2 e fluxos de CO2 na plataforma continental de Pernambuco estão acima dos estimados nas médias globais para plataformas continentais abertas baseadas em modelos matemáticos. A variabilidade na pCO2 encontrada está ligada à própria característica da água tropical do Atlântico Sul, que cobre a rasa plataforma pernambucana com águas quentes. Onde a baixa solubilidade do CO2 devido à alta temperatura, associada à oligotrofia e aportes de matéria orgânica fazem com que a região da plataforma seja fonte de CO2 para atmosfera durante todo o ano. / The continental shelf of Pernambuco is characterized by oligotrophy and thermal stability throughout the year, influenced by the North Brazil current that brings warm water, rich in CO2 to the continental shelf of northeastern Brazil. The Capibaribe and Jaboatão rivers are one of the major rivers of Pernambuco. They receive a large input of domestic effluents from Recife and its metropolitan area, which causes changes in the natural carbon cycle. Here we evaluated the pCO2 variability in these two estuaries and in the inner shelf area of Pernambuco. To evaluate the role of the estuaries, samples were collected bimonthly during low tide, on a seasonal cycle from November 2010 to September 2011. The Capibaribe estuary presented the highest values of total alkalinity (TA) and total inorganic carbon (TCO2), with a significant difference between the two rivers. Both estuaries showed seasonal variation in TCO2 and TA values. The annual TA averages were 1649 ± 390 μmol kg-1 in the Capibaribe and 1557 ± 315 μmol kg-1 at Barra de Jangadas. Regarding the pCO2, the estuaries were saturated in CO2 throughout the year, with average for the dry season of 3317 ± 2034 μatm in the Capibaribe and 6018 ± 4589 μatm in Barra de Jangadas. These values varied seasonally between estuaries, with a pCO2 decrease during the rainy season in the Capibaribe, and an increase of up to 300% in the Barra de Jangadas estuary. In order to obtain a better evaluation of the spatial distribution of pCO2 over the shelf waters, it was developed an equipment for the continuous and direct measurement of sea surface pCO2 as low-cost alternative to the commercially manufactured ones. The first cruise took place in December 2014, starting from the port of Recife towards the Barra de Jangadas estuary. Even though the dry period has shown the highest primary productivity, the region presented itself as oligotrophic, with peaks of chl-a (8.4 mg m3) under influence of the Capibaribe plume. Only a small area showed CO2 subsaturation to the atmosphere, with the minimum value of 376.6 μatm. In general, a high CO2 fugacity (fCO2) was identified in the entire area of the inner shelf, with average of 474.33 ± 66.57 μatm, resulting in an mean flux to the atmosphere of 8.5 ± 6.82 mmol C m-2 d-1. It was proposed a model to predict the fCO2 using salinity and temperature values for inner the shelf during the summer. A more comprehensive spatial and seasonal distribution of the carbonate parameters was conducted by using values of TA TCO2 in areas subjected and non-subjected to riverine inputs during 2013 and 2014. The area presents a relative stability to what concerns the pCO2 and pH distribution, with overall average values of 449 ± 45 μatm and 8.00 ± 0,03 respectively. In general, the parameters analyzed were influenced by the distance from the coast, resulting in the development of prediction models for TA, TCO2, pCO2, pH, ΩCa and ΩAr using temperature, salinity and longitude data. The area has a low vulnerability to ocean acidification process, the TA is high even in the areas under riverine influence, where the lowest average values was registered 2358 ± 28 μmol kg-1. The values of pCO2 and CO2 fluxes found on the continental shelf of Pernambuco are above those expected on global averages estimated by mathematical models for open continental shelf. The variability in pCO2 found is linked to the own characteristic of the South Atlantic tropical water, which covers the shallow Pernambuco platform with warm waters. The low solubility of CO2 due to high temperature, combined with oligotrophy and the transport of organic matter to be respired outside the estuaries, turns the continental shelf into a source of CO2 to the atmosphere throughout the year.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-04-26T16:06:29Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese_Pinheiro_BR_2016_PPGO_UFPE.pdf: 4797187 bytes, checksum: 23d620ab5ad4e454bcb109d992f47da5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-26T16:06:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese_Pinheiro_BR_2016_PPGO_UFPE.pdf: 4797187 bytes, checksum: 23d620ab5ad4e454bcb109d992f47da5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-30 / O aumento da pressão parcial de dióxido de carbono (pCO2) na atmosfera, que passou de uma média de 280ppm antes da revolução industrial para acima de 400ppm nos dias atuais, é um dos principais responsáveis por uma série de mudanças globais. Entre elas, a elevação da temperatura superficial da água do mar (TSM), a elevação do nível do mar, e a acidificação oceânica (AO). Os ambientes recifais têm sido apontados como os mais vulneráveis a estas mudanças. Efeitos da elevação da pCO2 sob ambientes recifais no Atlântico Sul, são escassos e na sua maioria reportam apenas efeitos da elevação da TSM e eventos de branqueamento. O Atol das Rocas é a primeira Reserva Biológica marinha do Brasil e foi escolhido neste estudo por ser um exemplo de recife biogênico, oceânico e praticamente livre de impactos como sobrepesca, poluição, e turismo desordenado. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar os efeitos da elevação da pCO2 atmosférica sob os organismos construtores do atol para estabelecer um ponto de referência para futuras comparações, devido a sua vulnerabilidade a estes processos. A pesquisa foi dividida em três etapas, sendo essas a caracterização, a avaliação do estado e a experimentação dos prováveis efeitos da acidificação nos organismos calcários. Inicialmente são apresentados dados sobre a cobertura bentônica e a sua interação com os parâmetros abióticos (temperatura, salinidade, disponibilidade de nutrientes dissolvidos, pH e alcalinidade total). Foi observada dominância de macro e tufos de algas em locais com maior disponibilidade de nutrientes dissolvidos, indicando que maiores concentrações de nutrientes inorgânicos na água do mar contribuem para a distribuição dos organismos no atol. E, além disso, ambientes com alta frequência de organismos carbonáticos foram associados com uma diminuição da concentração de alcalinidade. Em seguida, dados foram obtidos sobre reprodução, crescimento e distribuição de frequência da população da espécie de coral dominante nas piscinas do atol (Siderastrea stellata). Foi observado um evento de planulação e o crescimento inicial dos pólipos primários, os quais, após 3 meses mostraram uma média de diâmetro de 1,49±0,45 mm, variando entre 0,9 e 2,28 mm e 14,70% de taxa de mortalidade. A média da taxa de extensão anual das colônias adultas foi de 6,8 ± 0,7 mm. ano-1. Colônias com 4,1 a 10 cm de diâmetro também foram frequentes no atol (48,1±14,5%). A população de S. stellata no atol mostra-se com um alto potencial de manutenção e recuperação, embora tenha sido observado uma baixa taxa de recrutamento. Na outra etapa do estudo se fez uma caracterização do sistema carbonato no atol, avaliando a influência do metabolismo dos organismos sob as variações espaço-temporais observadas. Os resultados indicaram uma grande disponibilidade de carbonato dissolvido nas piscinas do atol. Os índices de saturação de aragonita não só suprem as necessidades metabólicas dos organismos, como estão acima dos observados para outros ambientes recifais. Desta forma, é possível que a intensa atividade biológica no atol das rocas possa servir como um tampão adicional para o equilíbrio do pH e mitigar alguns dos efeitos da acidificação oceânica localmente. Por fim, foi realizado um experimento com espécies que ocorrem no atol, o coral scleractíneo Porites astreoides e o zoantídeo Palythoa caribaeorum. Foram avaliadas as respostas fisiológicas (crescimento, respiração, fotossíntese, lipídios totais e clorofila a) desses organismos mediante condições de estresse térmico e acidificação. P. astreoides sofreu influência do aquecimento e da acidificação em todas as taxas metabólicas avaliadas, enquanto o P. caribaeorum teve um menor, ou nenhum impacto no seu metabolismo. / The increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2) in the atmosphere, which rose from an average of 280 ppm before pre-industrial times to over 400 ppm today, it is one of the main responsible for a series of global changes. Among them, increasing sea surface temperature (SST), sea level rise and ocean acidification (OA). Coral reefs have been identified as the most vulnerable ecosystem to these changes. Investigations about the effects of elevated anthropogenic pCO2 on coral reef environments in the South Atlantic are scarce and mostly only effects of the increase of SST and bleaching events were reported. Rocas Atoll is the first Marine Biological Reserve in Brazil and was chosen in this study because it is an example of a oceanic biogenic reef, and virtually free from impacts such as overfishing, pollution, and unregulated tourism. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of increased atmospheric pCO2 on the atoll building organisms to establish a benchmark for future comparisons, because of their vulnerability to these processes. Initially are presented data on the benthic cover and its interaction with the abiotic parameters (temperature, salinity, availability of dissolved nutrients, pH and total alkalinity). It was observed a dominance of macro and tuff algae in places with higher availability of dissolved nutrients, indicating that higher concentrations of inorganic nutrients in seawater contribute to the spatial distribution of organisms on the atoll. And besides, environments with high frequency of carbonate organisms were associated with a decrease of alkalinity. Then, data were obtained on reproduction, growth and frequency distribution of the population of the dominant coral species in the atoll pools (Siderastrea stellata). A planulation event was observed and initial growth of primary polyps which, after 3 months showed 1.49 ± 0.45 mm average diameter ranging between 0.9 and 2.28 mm and 14.70% mortality rate. The average annual extension rate of adult colonies was 6.8 ± 0.7 mm. year-1. Colonies with 4.1 to 10 cm diameter were also common in the atoll (48.1 ± 14.5%). The population of S. stellata in the atoll shows a high potential for maintenance and recovery, although it was observed a low recruitment rate. In another stage of the study, a characterization of the carbonate system of the atoll was made, in order to assess the influence of the metabolism of organisms under spatio-temporal variations. The results indicated a large availability of dissolved carbonate in the atoll pools. The aragonite saturation rates not only supply the metabolic demands of the corals, but are above those observed for other coral reef environments. Thus, it is possible that the intense biological activity of the Rocas Atoll can serve as an additional buffer for the pH equilibrium and locally mitigate some of the effects of ocean acidification. Finally, an experiment was conducted with species that occur in the atoll, the scleractinian coral Porites astreoides and the zoanthid Palythoa caribaeorum. The physiological responses of these organisms were evaluated (growth, respiration, photosynthesis, total lipids and chlorophyll a) under conditions of heat stress and acidification. P. astreoides was influenced by warmer temperatures and acidification in all measured metabolic rates while P. caribaeorum showed a minor or no impact on your metabolism.

Le plancton a un rôle crucial dans le cycle du carbone. Il est donc primordial de projeter son évolution dans le contexte de changement climatique. Une partie des résultats rapportés au niveau des communautés planctoniques montrent une stimulation de la production primaire avec l’augmentation de concentration en CO2 et très peu d’expériences combinant plusieurs facteurs ont été faites. Qui plus est, les expériences ont été réalisées majoritairement dans des conditions naturellement élevées ou enrichies en sels nutritifs et très peu de données existent dans les zones naturellement pauvres en nutriments et chlorophylle a, c’est à dire dans les zones oligotrophes telles que la mer Méditerranée, bien que ces régions représentent une surface importante et en expansion de la surface de l’océan. Plusieurs approches ont été utilisées au cours de cette thèse pour étudier les effets du réchauffement et de l’acidification de l’océan sur des communautés planctoniques dans le NO de la Méditerranée. Une des approches, restreinte à l’effet de l’acidification seule, a été l’utilisation de mesocosmes. En Baie de Calvi (expérience #1; été 2012 sur 22 jours) la communauté étudiée présentait un efficace processus de recyclage des sels nutritifs ainsi qu’une production régénérée importante alors que dans le Baie de Villefranche (expérience #2; hiver/printemps 2013 durant 11 jours) la communauté était caractérisée plutôt par un système autotrophe et par une production nouvelle dominante. Une troisième expérience a été réalisée pour étudier les effets synergétiques de l’acidification et du réchauffement de l’océan (expérience #3; March 2012; post-bloom). Toutes les expériences ont ainsi été menées dans des conditions de faibles concentrations en sels nutritifs avec des communautés dominées par des petites espèces phytoplanctoniques telles que des haptophytes, cynaobacteries et chlorophytes. Lors de l’expérience #3, toutes les populations ont décliné au cours de l’expérience (12 jours) à l’exception des cyanobactéries (principalement Synechococcus spp.) qui ont significativement augmenté durant cette période. Cette augmentation était d’autant plus prononcée dans les conditions de température plus élevée, bien que l’augmentation concomitante de CO2 ai eu tendance à limiter cet effet. Pour les trois expériences, l’acidification de l’océan seule n’a pas montré d’effet sur les taux métaboliques quelque soit la méthode utilisée (O2-LD, marquage au 18O, 13C et 14C) alors que durant l’expérience #3, les conditions élevées en température ont favorisé la production brute déterminée par la méthode de marquage 18O. Des biomarqueurs spécifiques, les acides gras des lipides polaires, utilisés de façon combinée avec du marquage au 13C a permis la détermination des productions primaires par groupe. Ceci a confirmé que l’acidification de l’océan seule n’a pas particuliérement favorisé un groupe phytoplanctonique par rapport à un autre dans nos conditions expérimentales.Basé sur nos résultats et sur une revue de littérature, il apparait que la plupart des expériences (57 % des études) réalisées jusqu’à maintenant n’ont pas montré d’influence notoire de l’acidification de l’océan seule sur les communautés planctoniques, alors que le réchauffement de l’océan semble avoir plus d’effet sur la composition et la production planctonique. De plus, la biomasse dans les écosystèmes dominés par des petites espèces de phytoplancton semble être insensible à l’augmentation de CO2. A l’heure actuelle, il est impossible, basé sur ces résultats, de fournir un concept général de l’effet de l’acidification de l’océan sur les communautés planctoniques. Cependant il semble que l’acidification n’augmentera pas la biomasse et la production primaire pour la majorité des communautés. / Plankton plays a key role in the global carbon cycle. It is therefore important to projectthe evolution of plankton community structure and function in a future high-CO2 world.Several experimental results reported at the community level have shown increased rates ofprimary production as a function of increasing pCO2 and few multi-driver experiments havebeen performed. However, the great majority of these experiments have been performedunder high natural or nutrient-enriched conditions and very few data are available in areaswith naturally low levels of nutrient and chlorophyll i.e. oligotrophic areas such as theMediterranean Sea, although they represent a large and expanding part of the ocean surface.Several approaches have been used during this thesis to investigate the effects ofocean warming and acidification on plankton communities in the NW Mediterranean Sea.One approach, restricted to the investigation of ocean acidification effects alone, was the useof mesocosms. In the Bay of Calvi (experiment #1; summer 2012 during 22 days), thecommunity was very efficient in recycling nutrients and showed important regeneratedproduction while in the Bay of Villefranche (experiment #2; winter/spring 2013 during 11days) the community was characterized by a more autotrophic state and larger newproduction. A third experiment was set-up to investigate the combined effects of oceanacidification and warming in small containers in the Bay of Villefranche (experiment #3;March 2012; post-bloom conditions).All experiments were conducted under low nutrient conditions with communitiesdominated by small species (e.g. haptophytes, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes). During the thirdexperiment, biomass of populations decreased throughout the experiment (12 days), exceptcyanobacteria (mostly Synechococcus spp.) that significantly increased during that period.This increase was even more pronounced under elevated temperature, albeit the combinationwith elevated pCO2 tended to limit this effect. For the three experiments, ocean acidificationalone had no effect on any of the metabolic processes, irrespective of the methods used (O2-LD, as well as 18O, 13C and 14C labelling) while during the multi-driver experiment #3, oceanwarming led to enhanced gross primary production as measured by the 18O labellingtechnique. Specific biomarkers, polar lipid fatty acids, were used in combination with 13Clabelling to assess group primary production rates. This confirmed that ocean acidificationalone did not favour any phytoplankton group under our experimental conditions.Based on our findings and on an extensive literature review, it appears that most (57%) of the experiments performed to date have shown no effect of ocean acidification alonewhile ocean warming seem to have an effect on plankton composition and production.Furthermore, plankton biomass in ecosystems dominated by small phytoplankton speciesappears insensitive to elevated CO2. It remains, for the moment, impossible based on thesefindings to provide a general concept on the effect of ocean acidification on planktoncommunities. However, it appears that ocean acidification will likely not lead to increasedbiomass and primary production rates for most communities, as it was previously anticipated.Furthermore, although warming will likely lead to increased primary production, it appearsthat small species with a low capacity for export will be favoured. If this proves to be awidespread response, plankton will not help mitigating atmospheric CO2 increase through anenhancement of the biological pump.

L'objectif de cette thèse a été d'évaluer l'effet biogéochimique de deux forçages : l'acidification de l'océan et les dépôts de poussières sahariennes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons montré que dans une région dite Low Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (LNLC) l'effet de l'acidification de l'océan sur les cycles marins de l'azote (N), du phosphore (P) et du fer (Fe) sera surement négligeable. L'acidification des eaux de surface appauvries en N et P n'affecterait pas la spéciation de ces éléments, et la composition de la communauté planctonique, n'étant pas significativement modifiée, n'induirait pas de changement dans la dynamique des nutriments inorganiques. Dans un deuxième temps, les expériences menées pendant cette thèse nous ont permis de mieux paramétriser les processus post-dépôts des nutriments atmosphériques à la surface de l'eau de mer lors d'un évènement saharien. Les échanges dissous/particulaire ont lieu sur une courte échelle de temps. Ils sont à la fois contrôlés par la dynamique verticale des particules et la nature de la matière organique dissoute (DOM) pouvant s'agréger sur les particules lithogéniques. Dans des conditions d'acidification de l'océan, alors que la dissolution des éléments anthropiques adsorbés sur les poussières sahariennes, tels que l'azote inorganique, ne sera pas affectée, celle des éléments d'origine crustale (P et Fe) pourrait être accrue ou accélérée selon les agrégats organique-minéral formés. Le rôle majeur du processus d'agrégation dans la mise à disposition des nutriments atmosphériques a été mis en évidence par une rapide et importante formation abiotique de particules exopolymériques transparentes juste après le dépôt de poussières. / The objective of this thesis was to assess the biogeochemical effect of two forcings: the ocean acidification and the dust deposition. Firstly, we showed that in the Low Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (LNLC) area the effect of the ocean acidification on the marine cycle of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and iron (Fe) will be likely negligible. The pH decrease of the surface waters depleted in N and P would not affect the speciation of these elements, and the absence of effect on the composition of the plankton community would not lead to a shift in the dynamic of inorganic nutrients. Secondly, the experiments performed during this thesis allowed a better parametrization of the post-depositional processes of atmospheric nutrients in the surface seawater after a Saharan event. The exchanges dissolved/particulate occurred in the short timescale. They were controlled by both the particles dynamic and the nature of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) that can aggregate with the lithogenic particles. Under ocean acidification conditions, while the dissolution of anthropogenic elements adsorbed onto dust, such as the inorganic nitrogen, will not be affected, the dissolution of the crustal elements (P and Fe) could be higher and faster according the formation of organic-dust aggregates. The major role of the aggregation process on the availability of atmospheric nutrients was highlighted by the rapid and large abiotic formation of transparent exopolymeric particles (TEP) following the dust deposition to the surface waters.

The several million years preceding the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary has been the focus of many studies. Changes in ocean circulation and sea level, extinctions, and major volcanic events have all been documented for this interval. Important research questions these changes raise include the climate dynamics during the warm, but not hot, time after the decay of the Late Cretaceous greenhouse interval and the stability of ecosystems prior to the mass extinctions at the end-Cretaceous. I document several biotic perturbations as well as changes in ocean circulation during the Maastrichtian stage of the latest Cretaceous that question whether the biosphere was being preconditioned for the end-Cretaceous extinction. The first event at Shatsky Rise in the tropical North Pacific was the brief acme of inoceramid clams at ~71 Ma, followed by their abrupt extinction during the “mid-Maastrichtian event” at 70.1 Ma. The second is an intriguing dissolution event that began ~67.8 Ma at Ocean Drilling Program Site 1209 (2387 m). The dissolution event is marked by very poor planktic foraminiferal preservation and sharply reduced calcareous plankton diversity. The shift into the dissolution interval was initially gradual, then rapid. Within the late Maastrichtian dissolution interval, the planktic/benthic (P/B) ratio is low, planktic foraminifera are highly fragmented, larger taxa are mostly absent, small taxa are relatively abundant, and planktic foraminifera and nannofossil species richness are low. The event is followed by an abrupt recovery in carbonate preservation ~300 kyr prior to the K/Pg boundary. Was the dissolution event caused by a change in deep water circulation, migration of the site out of the high productivity tropical belt, or ocean acidification associated with Deccan Traps volcanism? Our data show that changing deep water masses, coupled with reduced productivity and associated decrease in pelagic carbonate flux was responsible for the dissolution interval, while Deccan Traps volcanism may have caused surface ocean acidification ~200-kyr prior to the K/Pg mass extinction event.

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