The market for off-grid solar solutions in Kenya has developed rapidly the recent years. The growth has required capital and access to finance, which has been mainly provided by foreign investors. This thesis examines the perceived risks on the market for off-grid solar solutions in Kenya through a series of interviews with actors engaged in the market. The purpose of the thesis is to investigate the access to capital and highlight the perceived risks that might constrain a continued positive development of the market in Kenya. The findings of this thesis categorize the perceived risks on the market as political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental (see full report table 2 in section 8 for sub categories). The companies engaged in the market for off-grid solar solutions should be differentiated based on their business model. This since their different value chains entails specific in risks. This study uses two modified value chains to highlight the differences in retail and distribution between the two defined market segments: product and utility. The product segment includes small-scale solar products often referred to as PICO-products and Solar-Home-Systems (SHS), which by being sold on installment now provides basic electricity to a growing number of people in Kenya. The utility segment includes minigrids with solar energy as power supply. This segment is subject to specific regulations regarding installations and operations, which is one of the main contributing factors to the difference in risks compared to the product segment. The other main factor is the way the respective segment distributes and retails their products/electricity. The distribution for the product segment is done by regular land transportation and customer interaction through sales agents, providing basic access to electricity. While the minigrids uses a local distribution grid to provide access to electricity. This leads to specific risks within the categorizes social, technological and legal risk. This study shows that the lack of understanding of the different market segments and their context specific risks, pose a risk to the market reputation and the local actors access to finance. The absence of knowledge about the difference in risks causes generalizations to be done, both from financiers who might place their funding elsewhere, and the customers who might choose other solutions than solar to fulfill their energy needs. The uncertainty of the future development and the position of the national regulations on the market together with the two segments creates barriers for future access to finance. Access that is required to build and boost the market even further.

Because of global warming and the Paris agreement from 2015, countries need to switch their energy sources into clean sources. For some countries, like Perú, electricity produced from renewable energy sources is still a new technology. Its electricity demand depends entirely on traditional hydropower and thermal plants. Despite the high solar radiation in the coast and Andes (mountain range that passes through the entire South American continent), solar electricity is not developed and it fairly reaches the 1% of the national electricity production. Sweden, similarly, also produces its highest share on electricity from hydropower. However, nuclear energy and renewables like biomass and wind cover the rest of the demand, compared to thermal plants for Perú. On the other hand, most of the poor citizens of Perú live in the Andes, especially in remote villages, disconnected from the national grid and suffering from the cold during winter. Because their energy demand is low, it is not profitable for the electrical companies to give them electricity. The Swedish population, however, has 100% access to electricity. Despite that, high prices on maintaining the connection to the electricity network, and constant failures because of bad weather (more common nowadays because of global warming), brings the idea to disconnect from the grid and produce one´s own electricity, with, for example, photovoltaic systems. These problems occur not exclusively in Sweden. The work done on this thesis consists on a design of an off-grid solar PV system using batteries for energy storage, both for a remote farmer village in the high Andes in Perú (Ungalluta 2) and for a rural, low populated village in the center of Sweden (Gåsborn). The design is done manually and by software (PVSyst), with real life components, analyzing costs and the possibility to live entirely on solar power. The priority when choosing the components is the lowest price. For Ungalluta 2, with a demand of 17.1kWh/d (11 people), 13 PV modules and 1600Ah of battery capacity (Lead Acid) are needed, with a payback in approximately 40 years, renewing the PV panels on year 25 because of degradation. The initial investment is 21540EUR. For Gåsborn, with a demand of 36.44kWh/d (average Swedish family with children), 42 PV modules and 2850Ah of battery capacity (Lithium) are needed, with a negative payback, even increasing the PV modules to cover the entire year (more than 400). This is because the solar irradiation is quite low during winter and the load demand needs to be satisfied with considerable amounts of Diesel with a backup generator. After analyzing the results, it is possible and viable to build PV systems for the villagers in the Andes of Perú, but they will need monetary help of the government (high initial cost). For Sweden, it is not profitable to depend entirely on PV power. Other renewable sources must complement it, such as wind, to compensate the low solar irradiation and reduce the diesel consumption. / På grund av global uppvärmning och Parisavtalet från 2015, måste länderna byta sina energikällor till förnybara alternativ. För vissa länder, som Perú, är el från förnybara källor fortfarande en ny teknik. Dess elbehov beror helt och hållet på traditionella vattenkraftverk och termiska anläggningar. Trots den höga solinstrålningen vid kusten och i Anderna (bergskedja som går genom hela den sydamerikanska kontinenten) är el från PV inte utvecklad och den täcker knappt 1 % av den nationella elproduktionen. Sverige producerar på motsvarande sätt sin högsta andel av el från vattenkraftverk. Den resterande delen av elbehoven täcks av kärnkraftverk och förnybar energi som biomassa och vindkraft jämfört med de termiska anläggningarna i Perú. De flesta fattiga invånarna i Perú bor i Anderna, särskilt i avlägsna byar, bortkopplade från det nationella elnätet och blir således lidande under de kalla vintrarna. På grund av deras låga energibehov är det inte lönsamt för elföretag att förse dem med elektricitet. I Sverige är det dock annorlunda. Befolkningen har 100 % tillgång till elektricitet. Trots det är priserna för underhåll av anslutning till elnäten höga och återkommande strömavbrott på grund av dåligt väder är vanligt, särskilt på landsbygden. Detta ger upphov till idén om att koppla bort från nätet och producera egen elektricitet med exempelvis solcellssystem. Arbetet i denna uppsats består av en konstruktion av ett off-Grid system med solceller som använder batterier för energilagring, både för en by högt upp i Anderna i Perú (Ungalluta 2) och för en mindre befolkad by på landsbygden i mitten av Sverige (Gåsborn). Systemen är beräknade både för hand och med mjukvara (PVSyst) med verkliga komponenter för att analysera kostnaden och möjligheten att helt och hållet leva på solenergi. Vid val av komponenterna har lägsta pris varit en prioritering. För Ungalluta 2, med ett behov på 17.1 kWh/d (11 personer), behövs 13 solcellsmoduler och en batterikapacitet på 1600Ah (Bly-syra). Den ursprungliga investeringen uppgår till 21540 EUR och återbetalningstiden till 40 år där modulerna byts ut efter 25 år på grund av degradation. För Gåsborn, med ett behov på 36.44 kWh/d (genomsnittet for en Svensk familj med barn), behövs 42 solcellsmoduler och en batterikapacitet på 2850Ah (Litium) vilket ger en negativ återbetalning även om solcellsarean ökas för att täcka hela året (mer än 400 solcellsmoduler). Detta beror på att solinstrålningen är låg under vintern och att behovet måste täckas med stora mängder diesel och med en backupgenerator. Efter att ha analyserat resultatet är det möjligt och genomförbart att bygga solcellssystem för de byborna i Anderna i Perú men de kommer att behöva kapital från regeringen (hög initial kostnad). För Sverige, är det varken lönsamt eller miljövänligt att vara helt beroende på solenergi utan andra förnybara källor så som vind måste komplettera den för att kompensera den låga solinstrålningen och för att reducera dieselförbrukningen.

This diploma thesis deals with the principle of photovoltaic phenomenon and the distribution of photovoltaic systems. It also informs the reader about the possibilities of using the "Green Savings" subsidy within the program "New Green Savings" of the Ministry of the Environment. Last, but not least, it maps the energetic demands of the family house and, on the basis of it, presents the possible design of the photovoltaic system, including the estimation of the economic return.

Background. At the year of 2021, 770 million people worldwide were living without access to electricity. In parallel with this, electrification of vehicles and other equipment constantly increases which results in a demand for access to reliable off-grid energy to allow for operation in remote locations or places without sufficient energy infrastructure due to external factors such as natural disasters. As the use of fossil fuels is predicted to decrease, the need for sustainable energy production utilizing renewable energy sources has proved to be critical. The combination of these factors results in a need for the development of sustainable off-grid energy systems utilizing renewable energy sources.  Objectives. The objective of this thesis is to highlight needs and present a developed solution to portable off-grid energy production and distribution utilizing renewable energy sources. The goal is to highlight problems within the area of focus and present a potential solution to one, or multiple, of these problems. The presented solution shall be based on a solid engineering foundation and meet the technical requirements developed from needs that arise during the project. Methods. The work presented in this thesis was conducted with the use of DRM, Design Research Methodology, as the choice of research methodology while Design thinking was the choice of design approach. The use of DRM allowed for a structured and efficient research process that allowed for the possibility to validate result. The use of Design thinking as design approach provided methods and tools to support innovation while working with problems that were initially unknown or vaguely defined. Results. The result of the work presented in this thesis provides information regarding multiple problems and critical aspects within the area of focus. A list of requirements for a sustainable energy system to satisfy in order to enter the market is presented, where portability, reliability and redundancy are marked as key requirements. A proposed solution in the form of a portable modular sustainable energy production trailer utilizing different renewable energy sources was developed to allow for off-grid electricity generation. This combined with an energy distribution solution in the form of a energy storage module mounted on the Volvo TA15 system allows for autonomous energy transportation to the location of the energy need.  Conclusions. As the need for sustainable energy constantly increases, development of sustainable energy production and distribution systems that can operate off-grid has proven to be critical. The utilization of renewable energy sources has also been identified as a critical factor in parallel with the phasing out of fossil fuels. The proposed solution has provided evidence of the potential for a portable off-grid hybrid energy system and its potential impact on the global 2030-agenda goals for sustainability.

In rural areas, access to electricity is required for better living standard, enhance income options and reduce population migration. In last decades, steady progress has been made but the status of electrification significantly varies across countries. In developing countries, about 1.6 billion people live without electricity and another 2 billion have access but to an unreliable extent. Large population also live in remote areas where extension of grid is not feasible, where people continuing to live under distress conditions. International projections reveal that number of un-electrified people will remain same by the year 2030 if similar pace of electrification is continued in future.From this perspective, the study describes what bigger countries such as India, China and Brazil are doing and where rural electrification stands in priority in a poor country like Ethiopia. Is off-grid technologies show an option for such remote locations" The two case studies of Vietnam and South Africa reveal that work carried out through external support in the absence of national policies. As a result, people have experienced the benefits of technologies but unable to retain them in long term. Electricity has given various advantages but poor affordability of the people hinders the acceptance of technologies in rural areas.The study shows the need of a framework to achieve the long-term support for rural electrification. A framework that could direct the national priorities, understands social, economic and environmental aspects of off-grid technologies, identify key areas to be strengthen, allocates the roles and responsibilities at different working levels, maintains a consistent flow of adequate finance, pursue regular monitoring process and incorporate the monitoring results, or, critical success factors into the national policies to make them more effective. Both macro- as well as micro- level approaches have been suggested in this study.

År 2045 är det långsiktiga målet för Sverige att inte ha några nettoutsläpp av växthusgaser. För att nå nettonollutsläpp görs satsningar på förnybara energikällor som vind- och solenergi. Dessa energikällor har en ojämn energiproduktion och på grund av det ökar intresset för att lagra energin, vilket är möjligt med vätgas. Syftet med examensarbetet är att utreda möjligheterna för ett radhus, punkthus och lamellhus placerade i Gävle att bli självförsörjande med solceller och vätgaslager. Studien är baserad på datainsamling och simulering. Simuleringar utförs i programvarorna IDA ICE och Winsun PV för att ta fram byggnadernas energianvändning och solelproduktion. Simuleringar utförs även i Excel där en egen beräkningsmodell har skapats för vätgassystemet. Det som presenteras i rapportens metod är hur beräkningsmodellen har byggts upp och de grundekvationer som har använts. De frågeställningar som ställs och besvaras är: Hur påverkas självförsörjningsgraden av el och värme för flerbostadshus genom installation av solceller och vätgaslagring? Hur påverkar husens utformning självförsörjningsgraden? Hur påverkar solceller och vätgaslager husens utsläpp av växthusgaser? Husmodellerna som analyseras har olika förutsättningar och förses med olika storlekar på elektrolysör och vätgaslager samt ett varierat antal bränsleceller. Husmodellerna utgår alla ifrån ett tomt lager och simuleras för två år. När analysen är genomförd utses de mest lämpade husmodellerna med högst självförsörjningsgrad. Därefter görs en analys av hur stora besparingar av växthusgasutsläpp som kan göras vid inrättande av solcells- och vätgassystem. Resultatet visar att självförsörjningsgraden är som högst för radhuset och punkthuset. För dessa system är självförsörjningsgraden 93 % respektive 89%. Lamellhuset har lägst självförsörjningsgrad, 71 %. Slutsatsen är att antal hushåll att försörja samt de olika husmodellernas förutsättningar att installera solceller har en betydande inverkan på självförsörjningsgraden. Vid inrättandet av solcells- och vätgassystem minskar utsläppen av växthusgaser med 36– 44 %. Följande visar på att inrättande av hållbara energisystem är en förutsättning för omställningen till förnybara energisystem och därmed nå klimatmålen. / In 2045, the long-term goal for Sweden is to have no net emissions of greenhouse gas. To reach net zero emissions, investments are made in renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy. These energy sources have an uneven energy production, due to this there is an increase in interest for storing energy in the form of hydrogen. The aim of the thesis is to investigate the possibilities for a terraced house, tower block and low-rise apartment building located in Gävle to become self-sufficient with solar power and hydrogen storage. The study is based on data collection and simulation. The software IDA ICE and Winsun PV were used to simulate the buildings electricity needs and solar production. In Excel, a separate calculation model has been created for the hydrogen system. The method of the report presents how the calculation model has been constructed from the basic equations used. The question statements are: How is the degree of self-sufficiency of electricity and heat for apartment buildings affected by the installation of solar cells and hydrogen storage? How does the design of the houses affect the degree of self-sufficiency? How do solar cells and hydrogen storage affect greenhouse gas emissions? The house models analyzed have different prerequisites and are equipped with different sizes of electrolyser, fuels cells and hydrogen storage. The house models are all based on an empty storage and simulated for two years. Once the analysis is completed, the most suitable house model with the highest self-sufficiency rate is selected. This is followed by an analysis of how much greenhouse gas emissions can be saved by installing a solar and hydrogen system. The results shows that the self-sufficiency is highest for the terraced house and tower block. For these systems, the degree of self-sufficiency is 93% and 83%. The low-rise building has the lowest degree of self-sufficiency, 71%. The conclusion is that the number of households to support and the various house models’ conditions for installing solar cells have a significant impact on the degree of self-sufficiency. When using solar cells with hydrogen storage, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 36-44%. This shows that the establishment of sustainable energy systems is the prerequisite for the transition to renewable energy systems in order to reach the climate goals.

This thesis aims to provide a recommended power system design for optimal efficiency, reliability, and cost in off-grid applications. The power system examined in this project is a residence in an off-grid community called Quail Springs that generates its energy from roof mounted solar panels. The existing system was analyzed to see what equipment can remain, what needs to be upsized, and what needs to be added to the system. Two power systems are considered for the residence: a fully AC power system and a hybrid AC/DC power system. Simulations were run in PSCAD to compare the efficiencies of the two proposed systems at varying load. The results of the simulations showed the hybrid power system to be generally less efficient when supplying AC and DC loads, but greater than 5% more efficient when only supplying DC load. Although the hybrid AC/DC system is approximately 70% more expensive, it is still the final recommended design due to potential efficiency gains and in an effort to provide educational opportunities that may lead to further efficiency gains in future hybrid AC/DC power systems.

In this report the design and testing of a plug and play system to run Coolfinity’s Icevolt 300 refrigerator on solar panels is discussed. Such a system will be able to provide adequate cooling for food & beverages in area’s with unreliable or no electricity available. Currently such systems are only available for small chest refrigerators, while the Icevolt 300 is a large standing commercial refrigerator with a glass door. This is ideal for shops, cafés restaurants and smaller distribution centres. The system contains a solar charge controller, a battery and an inverter. First the component specifications and required solar panels are calculated. From those calculations system components are evaluated. A custom casing is designed to fit the components. An OEM is chosen and the chosen Inverter is tested extensively. The tests show that the inverter does not have any problems starting the Icevolt 300 compressor at a reduced voltage. Many battery manufacturers are evaluated and samples from three different manufacturers are obtained and tested. Samples of one of the manufacturers match specifications and have no issues with the high start up power of the compressor. A full system test proofs that the system works, but also indicates that the original refrigerator consumption estimate was too low. This means more PV panels are needed than originally estimated. With the information from the tests a new model is build that estimates the performance more accurate. A program is written to estimate the performance and decide the PV panels required. The pilot series of the case showed a lot of improvements are needed in the case design, especially on cost. A test is prepared in Mali but no test data is obtained yet. Based on the work done it would be recommend to investigate DC direct refrigerators instead of continuing the path of PV to AC systems. / I denna rapport diskuteras design och testning av ett plug and play - system för att köra Coolfinity’s Icevolt 300 -kylskåp på solpaneler. Ett sådant system kommer att kunna tillhandahålla tillräcklig kylning för mat och dryck i områden med opålitlig eller ingen tillgänglig el. För närvarande är sådana system endast tillgängliga för små kylboxar, medan Icevolt 300 är ett stort stående kommersiellt kylskåp med en glasdörr. Detta är idealiskt för butiker, kaféer och mindre distributionscentra. Systemet innehåller en laddningsregulator för solpaneler, ett batteri och en växelriktare. Först beräknas komponentspecifikationerna och nödvändiga solpaneler. Utifrån dessa beräkningar utvärderas systemkomponenter. Ett anpassat hölje är utformat för att passa komponenterna. En OEM väljs och den valda växelriktaren testas utförligt. Testerna visar att växelriktaren inte har några problem att starta Icevolt 300 -kompressorn med reducerad spänning. Många batteritillverkare utvärderas och prover från tre olika tillverkare erhålls och testas. Prover från en av tillverkarna matchar specifikationerna och har inga problem med kompressorns höga starteffekt. Ett fullständigt systemtest bevisar att systemet fungerar, men indikerar också att den ursprungliga uppskattningen av kylförbrukningen var för låg. Det betyder att fler PV -paneler behövs än vad som ursprungligen beräknades. Med informationen från testerna byggs en ny modell som uppskattar prestandan mer exakt. Ett program skrivs för att uppskatta prestanda och bestämma vilka PV -paneler som krävs. Pilotserien för höljet visade att många förbättringar behöver göras vad beträffar höljets design, särskilt vad gäller kostnaden. Ett test förbereds i Mali men inga testdata har erhållits ännu. Baserat på det utförda arbetet skulle det rekommenderas att undersöka direkta DC -kylskåp istället för att fortsätta vägen för PV till AC-system.

Distributed energy is an attractive alternative to typical centralized energy sources specifically for remote locations not accessible to the electricity grid. With the continued advancement into new renewable technologies like solar, wind, fuel cell etc., off-grid standalone systems are becoming more attractive and even compeating on a cost basis for rural locations. Along with the environmental and sustainable movement, these technologies are only going to get more and more popular as time goes on. Power electronic converters are also advancing which will help the shift in electricity options. Creating innovative power electronic systems will be important when moving toward smaller, more e cient and higher power density solutions. As such, this thesis will aim to design and create an integrated power electronic system for an o -grid standalone solar application designed for remote rural locations with no access to electricity, or in locations which could bene t from such a system. It is designed for a DC input source from 24V-40V, such as a solar panel, and can operate four di erent loads; one 12V-24V 100 W DC load, charge a 48V battery, run three 5V cell phone charger outputs and run one 230V, 50Hz, 1 kW AC load. A boost converter, buck converter, phase shifted full bridge isolated DC-DC converter and a single phase inverter are implimented in the integrated system to achieve these outputs. A comparison of similar products on the market are presented and compared with the proposed design by showing the product speci cations, advantages and disadvantages of each. A discussion of each converter in the system is presented and will include operation, design and component selection. An in-depth design process for the inductor within the boost converter is presented and will cover core, winding design and an optimization algorithm using the Genetic Algorithm (GA) is used to compare di erent ferrite based C-C shaped inductors. More speci cally, the core material selected is Ferroxcube 3C97 and the inductor comparions are between di erent Litz bundled windings from New England Wire Tecnologies and a customized rectangular winding. The GA optimizes around the lowest volume by comparing the di erent inductor designs using the di erent Litz winding constructions and the custom rectangular winding constrictuion. The rectangular winding achieves the lowest volume and will be compared with a three phase interleaved boost design implimenting a CoilCraft inductor. The buck converter is the simplest converter and is designed using the traditional methods in literature. An in-depth design process for the phase shifted full bridge converter is also done wherein the zero voltage switching (ZVS) is achieved. The DC-AC inverter is the last converter designed within the integrated system and covers input capacitor sizing, and output lter design. There are speci c distributed energy standards that must be followed when connecting loads to the system and so the purpose of the lter is to lter out the voltage harmonics. The control techniques for each converter is also discussed and shown to operate in both simulation and in experimentally. The losses within the system are discussed and the required equations are de ned / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Submitted by Rosivalda Pereira (mrs.pereira@ufma.br) on 2017-06-01T19:08:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 VictorNogueiraTeixeiraMota.pdf: 10378249 bytes, checksum: 880b9599e08ab5e5f7a0bd7c97ddcb71 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T19:08:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 VictorNogueiraTeixeiraMota.pdf: 10378249 bytes, checksum: 880b9599e08ab5e5f7a0bd7c97ddcb71 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-31 / Housing with dignity in Brazil still does not reach the entire population. There are people who live in properties in precarious situations of safety and health. Besides not having a comfortable shelter to live, many people have no access to electricity and precious to the sustainable development of the population. This work is discussed and developed a rural housing model that meets low cost criteria, environmental comfort for users and energy efficiency. The National Program for Rural Housing the federal government aims to eradicate substandard housing, but housing conditions the granting of the prior existence of electricity in the community, which in many cases is isolated and does not have a utility power network. This work is raising questions about the rural electrification through a comparative analysis of models and incentive policies for PV solar energy in Brazil and worldwide, identifying strengths and to improve the energy matrix of the country, serving isolated households in urban centers and ensuring quality of life for these citizens. The main motivation is to give an indication for rural housing policies, in order to facilitate the extension of this benefit to under served rural sectors by electrification programs, whose condition is mandatory for eligibility of rural housing programs. The results encourage the spread of solar PV technology as an alternative and promising renewable source in Brazil. / Habitação com dignidade no Brasil ainda não atinge a totalidade da população. Há pessoas que habitam imóveis em situações precárias de segurança e salubridade. Além de não terem um abrigo confortável para residir, muitas pessoas não tem acesso a energia eletrica, bem precioso para o desenvolvimento sustentável da população. Neste trabalho é discutido e desenvolvido um modelo de habitação rural que atende critérios de baixo custo, de conforto ambiental para os usuários e de eficiência energética. O Programa Nacional de Habitação Rural do governo federal visa a erradicação de habitações precárias, porém, condiciona a concessão da moradia a existência prévia de energia elétrica na comunidade, a qual em muitos casos e isolada e não possui rede de energia da concessionária. Este trabalho vem levantar questões acerca da eletrificação rural, através de uma análise comparativa dos modelos e políticas de incentivo a energia solar fotovoltaica no Brasil e no mundo, identificando pontos positivos e a melhorar a matriz elétrica do país, atendendo domicílios isolados dos centros urbanos e garantindo qualidade de vida a estes cidadãos. A principal motivação é dar um indicativo para as políticas de habitação rural, de forma a viabilizar a extensão deste beneficio para setores rurais desassistidos por programas de eletrificação, cuja condição é mandatória para elegibilidade de programas de habitação rural. Os resultados obtidos fomentam a disseminação da tecnologia de energia solar fotovoltaica como fonte renovável alternativa e bastante promissora no Brasil.