The aim of the present research was to investigate the various determinants of intergroup relations, particularly national stereotypes, in- group identification, contact, and social categorization. In chapter one a total of 150 Turkish Cypriots filled a national stereotypes questionnaire, social identity scale, and a scale assessing intergroup contact. Factor analysis of the stereotypes of the Turkish Cypriots (autostereotypes) demonstrated the existence of four latent variables adopted as Positivity, Competency- Based, Negativity and Religiosity/ Conservatism. The same factor structure was obtained for the stereotypes used to evaluate the Greek Cypriots (heterostereotypes). It was observed that Turkish Cypriots consistently demonstrated in- group favoritisim. In support of the Contact hypothesis it was found that increased exposure was predictive of greater endorsement of positive national stereotypes of the Greek Cypriots. In- group identification seemed to affect in- group attitudes alone / however, moderation analyses showed that in- group identification influenced negative out- group attitudes moderated through positive in- group attitudes. This led to the development of a model of negative out- group attitudes. In the second chapter the direction, content, and uniformity of the national stereotypes Turkish Cypriots endorse regarding the Turkish, Greek and British, three nations that have played a significant role in the history of Turkish Cypriots were assessed. Stereotypes were analyzed according to the following five dimensions: Empathic, dominant, efficient, negative, and religiosity/ conservative. Results led to the conclusion that Turkish Cypriots demonstrated in- group favoritism and had quite uniform autostereotypes yet inconsistent heterostereotypes. Stereotypic content was also mainly determined by the political, historical, and social relationship present between the national groups in question. In the third chapter participants were 150 Turkish Cypriots asked to assess their own town as well as the inhabitants of Nicosia. It was predicted that the act of stereotyping the neighbor would change depending on the type of category evoked from the questionnaire manipulation, such that Turkish Cypriots would judge Greek Cypriots as more similar when a common in- group identity Cypriot was suggested. The research findings however, did not support the assertions and Turkish Cypriots did not perceive themselves as more similar to Greek Cypriots under any condition, reflected also in their consistent selection of the same adjectives for Greek Cypriots over conditions. The limitations of the researches and future implications were discussed in an attempt to shed light on the intergroup processes present in Cyprus.

This project focuses on the perception of immigrants as criminals, but more importantly, how this negative perception of immigrants can influence the population’s support for strict punitive policies. The question I seek to answer: will common negative perceptions of immigrants affect public support for more stringent punitive policies? The literature on what makes people punitive mostly focuses on the role of race and hostile feelings that lead to punitive feelings towards an immigrant. In this project, minorities and their attitudes in contrast to past studies that focus on White Americans will be central to the analysis. Analysis of both the 2012 National Election Survey and 2001 Los Angeles Social Survey data is used to explain how the relationship between economic threat and negative perceptions of immigrants lead to respondents becoming more punitive. Although respondents who feel economic threat are more punitive, there is a difference in significance between Whites and Blacks.

I rapporten På tal om kvinnor och män (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2020) framkommer att andelen kvinnor bosatta i Sverige som var födda i Asien eller övriga världen med mer än 3 års eftergymnasial utbildning var 27% respektive 24%. Motsvarande andel för kvinnor födda i Sverige var 34%. Har arbetet för jämställdhet resulterat i skillnader i attityd beträffande att en utländsk kvinna bör utbilda sig eller en svensk man? Studien utfördes som en vinjettstudie med mellangruppsdesign (kön x etnicitet) (N = 415). Insamlad data analyserades genom tvåvägs variansanalyser för oberoende mätningar, korrelationstest av typen Pearsons produktmomentkorrelationskoefficienter samt hierarkiska regressionsanalyser. Resultatet visade att deltagarna var signifikant positivare till att en utländsk kvinna skulle utbilda sig än en svensk man. Vidare visade resultaten på att det fanns skillnader i attityd utifrån respondenternas etnicitet samt utbildningsnivå. Skillnaderna i attityd indikerade att arbetet för jämställdhet och jämlikhet i Sverige går i rätt riktning.

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In modern times, there is an increasing tendency to use "us versus them" rhetoric in the political realm. Motivated reasoning literature offers a solution as to how group conflict contributes to outgroup bias. People may develop negative feelings towards outgroups in order to reduce cognitive dissonance and feel better about their judgments. Nevertheless, this is not the situation for everyone. My research aims to understand how peoples’ predisposed tendencies may affect the level of their out-group bias. Drawing from the distinction between shame (a negative sense of identity) and guilt (a response to a specific behavior) in psychology, I hypothesized that self-conscious emotions would moderate the relationship between information about in-group transgressions and out-group bias. To test this, I conducted a survey experiment with three different groups: Men/Women, White/Black people, and Democrats/Republicans. Participants were randomly assigned to watch videos depicting misbehavior from their respective group. Results showed that the proneness to self-conscious emotions did moderate the relationship to some extent, although the connection between shame and guilt proneness was more complex than anticipated. Criticizing one's in-group generally caused people to experience cognitive dissonance and reinforced out-group bias, particularly among those who were highly prone to both shame and guilt. The three-way interaction between treatment, shame proneness, and guilt proneness varied across and within the different identity categories, suggesting that there is no single theory that can entirely explain the degree of out-group bias. / Political Science

Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur chefens ledarstil bör anpassas beroende på medarbetarnas mognadsnivå när valfritt distansarbete råder. För att uppfylla syftet besvaras fyra forskningsfrågor. De två första kopplas till hur tidigare erfarenheter av distansarbete påverkar individens anpassning till valfritt distansarbete, samt hur kommunikationen påverkas av distansarbete. De två sista berör hur medarbetares mognadsnivå och självledarskap påverkar deras tillhörighet som “in-group” eller “out-group”, samt vilken roll chefens ledarstil har för att främja kompetens och engagemang hos medarbetare. En kvalitativ forskningsmetod med semistrukturerade intervjuer användes, och två organisationer deltog i studien. Resultaten indikerar att tidigare erfarenhet av distansarbete påverkar hur organisationer upplever övergången till valfritt distansarbete, där teknisk kompetens och en neutral inställning spelar en central roll. Det framgår även att det valfria distansarbetet påverkar hur individer kommunicerar, oaktat tidigare erfarenheter. Digital kommunikation möjliggör ökad närvaro och snabbare interaktion, samtidigt som kommunikationen i stort anses bli svårare. Studien konstaterar att valfritt distansarbete medför en ökad självständighet med potential för ökat självledarskap för medarbetare på olika mognadsnivåer, vilket tillåter dem att klassificeras som “in-group” eller “out-group”. Högre förtroende och tillit krävs då chefer har svårare att observera medarbetarna. Slutligen redogör studien för vikten av att rätt ledarstil tillämpas när valfritt distansarbete råder, för att främja medarbetarnas kompetens och engagemang. Studien leder till en omarbetning av modellen för situationsanpassat ledarskap vid valfritt distansarbete för att bättre möta medarbetarnas skiftande behov. Genom att adressera existerande kunskapsluckor erbjuder studien vägledning för organisationer och chefer i en valfri distansarbetsmiljö för att bättre möta medarbetarnas förändrade behov. / The purpose of the study is to investigate how a manager's leadership style should be adapted based on employees' maturity levels when optional remote work is in place.  To achieve this purpose, four research questions are addressed. The first two questions explore how previous remote work experience affects an individual's adjustment to optional remote work and how communication is impacted by remote work. The latter two questions investigate how employees' maturity levels and self-leadership influence their classification as “in-group” or “out-group,” and what role the manager's leadership style plays in fostering employee competence and engagement. A qualitative research method with semi-structured interviews was employed, involving two participating organizations. The results indicate that previous experience with remote work affects how organizations perceive the transition to optional remote work, where technical competence and a neutral attitude play a central role. It also emerges that optional remote work affects how individuals communicate, regardless of previous experiences. Digital communication enables increased presence and faster interaction, while overall communication is considered to become more challenging. Furthermore, the study finds that optional remote work promotes increased independence and the potential for enhanced self-leadership among employees at different maturity levels, allowing them to be classified as “in-group” or “out-group.” Higher trust and confidence are required since managers find it more difficult to observe employees. Finally, the study emphasizes the importance of applying the appropriate leadership style in an optional remote work environment to foster employee competence and engagement. The study leads to a revision of the model for situational leadership in an optional remote work context to better address employees' evolving needs. By addressing existing knowledge gaps, the study offers guidance for organizations and managers in an optional remote work environment to better meet employees' changing needs.

Individer har en systematisk tendens att favorisera medlemmar i ens egen grupp och diskriminera de som tillhör en annan grupp, trots minimala grunder för gruppindelning. Denna studie syftar till att undersöka om social interaktion mellan individer i grupper påverkar denna särbehandlingstendens. I sådana fall, kan detta komma att yttra sig genom bland annat skillnader i kunskapsutbyte och spridning av information mellan de anställda på en arbetsplats. Grupper delades in slumpmässigt och särbehandlingen mättes via poängfördelning. Datainsamlingen skedde via både experiment (n = 41) och enkät (n = 135) samt med tre olika nivåer av social interaktion. Undersökningsdeltagarna fördelade mer poäng till sin egen grupp, än till den andra gruppen. Däremot påverkade varken grad av social interaktion eller typ av metod poängfördelningen. Vid samtliga tillfällen var det mellan en tredjedel till strax över hälften av undersökningsdeltagarna som särbehandlade. Slutsatsen är att även vid en slumpmässig gruppindelning så kommer en särbehandlingstendens att ske.

Small groups of friends—or peer groups—are a central feature of adolescence that contribute to the development of social identity and feelings of self-worth for group members. Additionally, adolescents value music highly and view it as a vital part of their lives. The purpose of this study was to examine and clarify the extent to which adolescents use music as an identity resource in small peer groups. Using Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory as a framework, I conducted a collective case study to understand (a) the ways in which adolescents use music to form and maintain a peer group, (b) the extent to which peer groups use music for the social categorization and stereotyping of other groups of adolescents, (c) the ways by which adolescents use music associated with their peer group to maintain a positive self-concept, and (d) how the peer group influences members’ enjoyment of music and music participation. I conducted group interviews with three adolescent peer groups that contained 5–8 seventh- and eighth-grade students. The peer group members shared experiences of bonding and socializing as a part of a peer group, and described time spent in their music classes. During the discussions, group members explained the role that music plays in their lives. The group members explained their peer group in the context of the school, describing instances of social categorization and stereotyping, in-group and out-group distinction, and self-concept maintenance made from comparisons to the out-groups. The participants discussed their views on school music courses, advocating for the implementation of new classes that included non-traditional instruments and the inclusion of more popular styles of music. Keywords: social identity, adolescent peer groups, in-group, out-group, social categorization, self-concept, stereotyping, adolescence music preference, positive distinctness

In group work, the sucker-effect is a motivational loss in which effort is reduced due to feeling taken advantage of when other group members intentionally avoid work, known as free-riding. No previous studies on the sucker-effect have investigated moderating factors that can be attributed to the free-rider. The purpose of this study was to explore if agreeable behavior of a free-rider would moderate the sucker-effect, and if so, to what extent. Using an experimental design, students (n = 20) at Södertörn University served as participants. A systematic allocation toone of two conditions was used, the less agreeable and more agreeable. During the experiment a participant and a confederate worked in dyadson a disjunctive cooperative jigsaw puzzle task. The manipulation was the free-riding confederate's level of agreeableness. Self-rated effort andactual performance were measured. Using Mann-Whitney U-tests (α =.05, two-tailed), no significant differences were found in either of thedependent variables. In fact, by and large, no sucker-effect was observed at all. Other than manipulating the confederate's level of agreeableness, the design allowed for much more interaction in the dyads than previous studies on the sucker-effect have. It is discussed whether this interaction might have created an ingroup feeling, leading to the prevention of asucker-effect. In this study it thus seems that the free-rider's level of agreeableness does not moderate the sucker-effect. Also, meaningful interaction between group members might prevent a sucker-effect fromoccurring at all. However, due to the study's small sample size, theseresults are not definitive and should be taken with caution.

After South Africa had adopted a democratic government, the labour force was changed profoundly. With the emphasis on diversity, employees were faced with work teams comprising people from different ages, genders, positions, races etc. The opportunity was given to value and embrace diversity in organisations. On the other hand, opportunities for prejudice and discrimination were greater than ever before. Consequently, stereotyping is evident within these diverse workplaces. If not properly managed, stereotypes can have various negative effects on the organisation. The academic sector in South Africa has to be equipped to manage diversity and therefore stereotypes to ensure the effectiveness of these institutions. The challenge is that employers need to be aware of how to manage such issues. Stereotypes are therefore a significant topic for research, specifically within South Africa. The objective of this research study was to explore stereotypes as experienced by individuals employed in the South African academic environment. A qualitative research study, specifically within the social constructivism paradigm, was employed for this study. A combination of the phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches was employed to reach the objectives of this study. The researcher made use of a case study strategy. Only one single case was utilised in this research study, namely the academic environment. Employees at one higher education institution (and two campuses) (N = 30) participated in this research study. Data was collected by means of semi-structured interviews, where after thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. The results of this study indicated that individuals working in the academic environment in South Africa are consciously aware of the meaning of stereotypes. Most participants were able to illustrate a definition of or meaning for stereotypes. The themes that were mentioned by participants included assumptions, beliefs, categorisation, generalisation, judgement as well as perception. Participants also indicated that stereotypes originate from various sources. Participants reported that primary and secondary exposure, individual differences, subjective perception as well as the fact that stereotyping was part of human nature were possible explanations for the origin of stereotypes. Participants were well aware of the fact that stereotypes originate from both us and others. When being stereotyped, individuals react to stereotypes in different ways. Participants mentioned that they react on a behavioural, cognitive and emotional level. Participants were also asked questions pertaining to the stereotypes they experience. It was found that various stereotypes exist within the academic environment. These stereotypes are experienced on an out-group and in-group level. Stereotypes mentioned by participants included age, gender, nationality, occupation, sexual orientation, race and work-related stereotypes. There were also participants from the study population who stated that they neither experienced stereotypes on in-group nor out-group level. Recommendations with regard to future research and practice were made. / MCom (Human Resource Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015