Chemical reactions can have a staggering amount of molecular complexity. Reaction mechanisms have been proposed with over one hundred elementary reaction steps that occur in the same system simultaneously. While several methods exist to simplify and make sense of the pathways and kinetics via which these reactions proceed, e.g., reaction graphs, sensitivity or flux analysis, microkinetic analysis, and comparison of energy landscapes, etc., these methods all have limitations and are often not able to capture a comprehensive picture of the kinetics of system. It has been found useful to view these mechanisms as a network, i.e., a reaction graph. These graphs enable the visualization of the pathways of the reaction and can provide an analytical tool for pathway and kinetic analysis. However, many of the specific graph-theoretic approaches in the literature are not the most suitable for kinetic analysis of complex mechanisms; as they are simply not based on rules that are rigorous enough to fully enumerate all the pathways or provide quantitative analysis of the reaction rates. Our Reaction Route (RR) Graph approach is different in that it depicts the mechanism by a graph that is consistent with all physical and chemical laws associated with reaction networks, particularly being consistent with mass and energy conservation, i.e., Kirchoff’s Flux Law (KFL) and Kirchoff’s Potential Law (KPL). Because of their adherence to these laws, RR Graphs are able to provide an accurate graph-theoretical tool not only for depicting all reactions routes as walks (hence the name RR Graph) but also for pruning mechanisms and allowing a simplified but accurate quantitative description of reaction rates. This adherence to KFL and KPL does mean that the construction and implementation of these graphs can be prohibitively difficult for large mechanisms. For large reaction systems,especially nonlinear mechanisms, it is not realistic to generate these graphs by hand. And although there exists an analytical solution to find a determinant matrix for the RR Graph of a mechanism, the process involves an exhaustive search for a solution which experiences a combinatorial explosion as the number of steps gets very large. This leads to the idea of developing an algorithm for a computer program that can determine how to generate these graphs automatically. Unfortunately, the same combinatorial explosion is present such that for a moderately sized twenty step mechanism, it could take an average computational processor over a decade to find a solution. We have determined, however, that this brute force combinatorial approach can be avoided if heuristics could be developed to bridge gaps in our knowledge of how these graphs are constructed. Thus, developing a better analytical approach and/or a tighter set of heuristics for a computer algorithm are the overarching goals of this work. To make progress toward developing such heuristics, a set of microkinetic mechanisms were analyzed with the notion that the realization of the RR Graphs would highlight a better approach to their construction and usage. In particular, a very large linear reaction system, a smaller linear system and two non-linear reaction systems were analyzed to develop insights into how each graph is manually constructed and analyzed. Furthermore, kinetic analysis was done for these mechanisms and compared to experimental data and other analytical tools to prove not only the validity of the RR Graphs, but also how they are a significant improvement over more commonly used approaches for mechanistic and kinetic analysis. Based on the lessons learned through a consideration of these examples, a set of heuristics are established and enumerated with the ultimate goal of developing an intuitive algorithm that can help automate drawing and kinetic analysis via RR Graphs of complex mechanisms.

Neste trabalho, a reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO) foi estudada em catalisadores nano-particulados de Pt e ligas de PtM (M = Co, Cr, Fe e Ni) suportados em carbono, preparados localmente por método de impregnação, para aplicação em células a combustível de eletrólito polimérico (CCEP). A caracterização física destes materiais foi realizada através das técnicas de energia dispersiva de raios x (EDS), difração de raios x (DRX), absorção de raios x (XAS) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura e transmissão. Os testes eletroquímicos dos catalisadores foram realizados com o uso de voltametria cíclica, medidas de polarização em estado estacionário e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. Estes estudos foram conduzidos em meia-célula usando eletrodos de disco/anel rotatórios e tendo ácido sulfúrico (0,5 mol L-1) como eletrólito e em células unitárias CCEP contendo membranas de Nafion® 212 (N212) e Nafion® 112 (N112), alimentadas com H2 no ânodo e O2/ar no cátodo, em diferentes temperaturas e pressões. Finalmente, foram também realizados estudos de durabilidade tanto dos catalisadores como das membranas poliméricas, os quais foram submetidos a procedimentos de degradação acelerada (PDA). Os resultados dos estudos em meia-célula mostraram que os catalisadores bimetálicos (PtM) são menos ativos cataliticamente para a RRO comparados à Pt pura, fatos que não se confirmaram nos testes em células unitárias. Por outro lado, após a aplicação do PDA os catalisadores apresentaram mudanças significativas em suas propriedades estruturais e eletrônicas que levaram à diminuição da atividade frente a RRO. No geral as células a combustível com N212 apresentaram melhor desempenho do que aquelas com N112, quando operadas com ar no cátodo, porém os estudos confirmaram que a degradação da membrana leva à redução do desempenho devido o aumento do cruzamento de gás, principalmente de H2. / In this work, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) was studied on nano-particulated Pt and PtM (M = Co, Cr, Fe e Ni) alloy electrocatalysts supported on carbon, prepared by an impregnation method, for utilization on polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC). The physical properties of the materials have been investigated by energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The electrochemical investigations were carried out using cyclic voltammetry, steady state polarization measurements and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Studies were conducted on half-cells with rotating ring-disk electrodes having 0.5 mol L-1 H2SO4 as electrolyte and on PEFC single cells built with Nafion® 212 (N212) and Nafion® 112 (N112) membranes, feed with H2 and O2/air at several temperatures and pressures. Finally, durability studies of either, the catalysts and membranes, were carried out, after they were submitted to accelerated degradation procedures (ADP). The half-cell results indicated a lower activity for the ORR of the bimetallic electrocatalysts, compared to pure Pt, but this was not confirmed by the single cell tests. On the other hand, after the ADP, the catalysts showed significant changes on the morphological and electronic properties, which leaded to a reduction of the activity for the ORR. The single cells with N212 presented higher performance than those with N112, when operating with air supplied cathodes, but the results confirmed that the degradation of the membranes leads to a reduction of the fuel cell performance by increasing the gas crossover, mainly of H2.

A pesquisa e desenvolvimento de novos materiais catalisadores para as reações eletródicas em células a combustível de membrana trocadora de prótons são de grande importância para a viabilização destes sistemas como geradores de energia. Neste trabalho foram preparados catalisadores de Pt-Co suportados em carbono (Pt-Co/C) por diferentes métodos e são apresentados os resultados da caracterização física por diferentes técnicas. Os resultados da avaliação da atividade eletrocatalítica para a reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO) em ácido sulfúrico, na ausência e presença de metanol e a avaliação do desempenho destes materiais em células a combustível unitárias alimentadas com H2 e/ou metanol (no ânodo) e O2 (no cátodo) são também apresentados. Em linhas gerais, observou-se que os catalisadores de Pt-Co/C apresentaram maior atividade catalítica para a RRO quando comparados ao catalisador Pt/C sendo o método de impregnação o melhor método de preparação dentre os investigados. O catalisador Pt75Co25/C, preparado pela deposição do Co sobre Pt/C seguido pelo tratamento à alta temperatura, apresentou o melhor desempenho para a RRO devido à provável formação de uma liga que apresenta menor tamanho de partícula e menor distância interatômica Pt-Pt que o Pt/C. Adicionalmente, este material apresentou boa estabilidade nos testes em célula a combustível alimentada com H2/O2. Catalisadores Pt-Co/C mostraram boa tolerância ao metanol quando usados como cátodos com maior atividade para a RRO que o Pt/C, tanto em ácido sulfúrico na ausência e presença de metanol como na célula a combustível de metanol direto. / Research and development of new catalyst materials for the electrodic reactions in polymer electrolyte fuel cells are of great importance for the development of these systems as sources of energy. In this work electrocatalyts Pt-Co supported on carbon (Pt-Co/C) were prepared by different methods. Additionally to conventional electrochemical characterization, the materials were physically characterized by means of several different techniques. The evaluation of the electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in acid media, in the absence and presence of methanol, as well as the evaluation of the performance in fuel cells fed with H2 or methanol (in the anode) and O2 (in the cathode) are investigated. Pt-Co/C electrocatalyts presented better catalytic activity for the ORR when compared to Pt/C. Additionally, the impregnation method was found as being the best preparation method investigated. Pt75Co25/C electrocatalyts prepared by deposition of Co on Pt/C followed by thermal treatment at high temperatures presented the best performance for the ORR due the probable formation of an alloy with small particle size and shorter Pt-Pt bond distance compared to Pt/C. This material presented good stability in fuel cells. Pt-Co/C electrocatalyts showed good tolerance to methanol when used as cathode materials, showing better activity for the ORR compared to Pt/C, in acid medium in the absence and presence of methanol and in direct methanol fuel cells.

A reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO) foi estudada em eletrodos lisos de platina e prata recobertos com filmes de quitosana e em eletrodos porosos de Pt/C, Ag/C, MnyOx/C e TiO2/C na ausência e na presença de filmes à base de quitosana, em eletrólito alcalino. Nestes estudos foram empregadas curvas de polarização em estado estacionário, obtidas em eletrodos de disco rotatório (EDR) e em células a combustível alcalina (CCA) unitárias, através das quais foram construídos os correspondentes diagramas de curvas de Tafel e os gráficos de Levich. Os estudos realizados em EDRs permitiram estabelecer-se uma boa compreensão da atividade catalítica e dos mecanismos envolvidos na RRO. Foi observada uma diminuição da atividade eletrocatalítica dos eletrodos metálicos (Pt e Ag lisos e porosos) quando na presença dos filmes de quitosana, havendo também uma mudança no mecanismo da reação. Assim, nos experimentos de EDR verificou-se que em altas densidades de corrente a etapa determinante da velocidade é a adsorção do oxigênio, em contraste com os eletrodos sem o filme para os quais a etapa determinante é a difusão do oxigênio. Nestes casos não foi possível calcular o número de elétr. Já, nos casos dos eletrodos de MnyOx/C e TiO2/C não foi observada nenhuma diminuição significativa na atividade eletrocatalítica destes materiais na presença dos filmes de quitosana, assim como no mecanismo da reação na presença dos filmes (inclusive no número de elétrons envolvidos na reação), apesar de se notar um pequeno aumento nos valores dos coeficientes de Tafel. Foram também realizados testes de alguns dos materiais como cátodos em células a combustível alcalinas unitárias alimentadas com hidrogênio/oxigênio, tendo sido verificado que o desempenho é promissor, apesar de ser inferior ao de células com eletrólito de membrana ácidas. / The oxygen reduction reaction was studied on smooth platinum and silver electrodes recovered with chitosan films and on Pt/C, Ag/C, MnyOx/C e TiO2/C porous electrodes in the presence or absence of chitosan-based films in alkaline electrolyte. These studies were carried out using steady state polarization measurement, obtained in a rotating disc electrode (RDE) and in alkaline fuel cells (AFC) (single cell), from which the corresponding Tafel curves and Levich plots were built. The studies carried out using the RDE had allowed establishing a good understanding of the catalytic activity and of the involved RRO mechanisms. A reduction in the electrocatalytic activity of the metallic electrodes and a change in the reaction mechanism (Pt and Ag smooth and porous) were caused by the presence of the chitosan films Thus, the RDE experiments showed that at high current densities the rate determining step of the ORR is the oxygen adsorption, in contrast to the electrodes without the film for which the rate determining step is the oxygen diffusion. In these cases it was not possible to calculate the number of electrons involved in the reaction. In the cases of the MnyOx/C and TiO2/C electrodes no significant change in the electrocatalytic activity, as well as in the reaction mechanism were caused due to the presence of the films (also in the number of electrons involved in the reaction), although a small increase in the Tafel coefficient values was noted. Also, tests of some of the materials as cathodes in AFC single cells with hydrogen/oxygen were carried out. These results showed that the performance is promising, although inferior to those of acid membrane electrolyte fuel cells.

As células a combustível são dispositivos eletroquímicos que produzem energia elétrica limpa. Entretanto, o seu uso em larga escala ainda é limitado devido às enormes perdas de potencial que ocorrem no cátodo em função da lenta cinética da reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO). Portanto, é necessário o desenvolvimento de novos catalisadores que sejam viáveis comercialmente, apresentem alta atividade eletrocatalítica e grande estabilidade para esta reação. Neste trabalho, a RRO foi estuda em meio ácido em eletrocatalisadores à base de platina suportadas em carbetos de tungstênio (WC) e molibdênio (MoC) com diferentes estruturas cristalinas. Os carbetos foram preparados pelos métodos de decomposição térmica (MDT) e carburação (MC) e, subsequentemente, utilizados para a preparação dos catalisadores do tipo Pt-carbeto pelo método do ácido fórmico ou borohidreto de sódio. Estes materiais foram caracterizados por difração de raios-X (XRD), espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios-X (EDX), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (TEM), espectroscopia de absorção de raios-X (XAS) in situ e espectroscopia de fotoelétrons excitados por raios-X (XPS). As medidas eletroquímicas foram realizadas em meio ácido usando a técnica de eletrodo disco-anel rotativo de camada fina. Os resultados de XRD, em conjunto com as medidas de TEM, indicaram que o MDT e MC fornecem carbetos com estruturas cúbicas (&beta;-WC1-x e &delta;-MoC) e hexagonais (&alpha;-WC e &alpha;-Mo2C) com tamanho de partícula < 2 nm e entre 10 e 40 nm, respectivamente. Os estudos eletroquímicos evidenciaram que os catalisadores Pt-carbeto/C apresentam diferenças de atividade específica (SA) e mássica (MA) para a RRO em função da estrutura e composição e que todos os catalisadores do tipo Pt-&beta;-WC1-x/C, Pt- &alpha;-Mo2C/C e Pt-&delta;-MoC/C e Pt2Ni- &alpha;-WC/C apresentam maior SA em comparação à Pt/C. A concentração de carbeto na matriz de carbono também influenciou significativamente os valores de SA, porém não há uma tendência clara que permita unificar um efeito comum para todos os catalisadores. Dentre todos estes catalisadores, o Pt-&beta;-WC1-x40/C e o Pt-&delta;-MoC40/C são 3,6 e 2,5 vezes mais ativos (SA) em comparação ao catalisador Pt/C. Também foi observado que a via predominante da RRO envolve cerca de 4 elétrons por molécula de oxigênio, com baixa produção de H2O2 em todos os casos. No caso dos materiais baseados em Pt-&beta;-WC1-x/C, análises de XANES in situ mostraram um pequeno aumento na ocupação da banda 5d da Pt, o que deve levar a uma interação Pt-OHx mais fraca, aumentando a cinética da RRO como observado. Além disso, os resultados de XPS evidenciam que a melhora na atividade específica está relacionada a um efeito sinérgico entre Pt ou Pt2Ni com as espécies do tipo WOx ou MoOx; exceto para os catalisadores de ligas Pt2Ni, para o qual os resultados de XPS indicaram a presença de WC na superfície do catalisador. Os testes de estabilidade mostraram que apesar do Pt/C ser mais ativo após 12.000 ciclos, o catalisador Pt-&alpha;-WC20/C é o mais estável em relação a sua AS, indicando que as interações benéficas das fases remanescente de Pt e WC/WOx são mantidas após o teste de durabilidade. / Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that produce clean electrical energy. However, their use on large scale is still limited due to the enormous potential losses that occur at the cathode due the slow kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Therefore, the development of new catalysts that are commercially viable, present high electrocatalytic activity and great stability for this reaction is still necessary. In this work, the ORR was studied in acid medium on platinum-based electrocatalysts supported on tungsten (WC) and molybdenum (MoC) carbides with different crystalline structures. Carbides were prepared by the thermal decomposition (TDM) and a carburizing (CM) methodes and, subsequently used for the preparation of the Pt-carbide type catalysts by the formic acid or sodium borohydride method. These materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The electrochemical measurements were performed in acid medium using the thin-layer rotating disk-ring electrode technique. The results of XRD, together with those of TEM, indicate that the MDT and MC provide carbides with cubic (&beta;-WC1-x and &delta;-MoC) and hexagonal ( &alpha;-WC and &alpha;-Mo2C) structures with particle size < 2 nm and between 10 and 40 nm, respectively. The Pt-carbide/C catalysts exhibit differences in the specific activity (SA) and mass (MA) for the ORR as a function of structure and composition. All catalysts of the types Pt-&beta;-WC1-x/C, Pt- &alpha;-Mo2C/C, Pt-&delta;-MoC/C and Pt2Ni- &alpha;-WC/C presented higher SA as compared to Pt/C. The concentration of carbide in the carbon matrix significantly influence the SA, but no tendency was clearly found so to identify a common effect catalysts overall. Among all catalysts, Pt-&beta;-WC1-x40/C and Pt-&delta;-MoC40/C are 3.6 and 2.5 times more active (SA) compared to the Pt/C catalyst. It was also observed that the predominant ORR mechanism involve &cong; 4 electrons per oxygen molecule, and so with negligible production of H2O2. In the case of the materials based on Pt-&beta;-WC1-x/C, in situ XANES analyzes evidenced a small increase in the Pt 5d-band, occupancy leading to a weaker Pt-OHx interaction, increasing ORR kinetics as observed. In addition, XPS results show that the improvement in SA is related to a synergistic effect between Pt or Pt2Ni with WOx or MoOx species, except for the Pt2Ni alloy catalysts, for which the XPS results indicated the presence of some WC on the catalyst surface. Stability tests show that although Pt/C is more active after 12,000 cycles, the Pt-&alpha;-WC20/C catalyst is the most stable relative to its SA, indicating that the beneficial interactions of the remaining phases of Pt and WC/WOx are maintained after the durability test.

Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: i) estudar a degradação de catalisadores do tipo Pt-M (onde M = Co e Cr) suportados em carbono após tratamento ácido e a atividade catalítica dos mesmos para a reação de redução de oxigênio; ii) avaliar o desempenho e a estabilidade de eletrocatalisadores de platina suportada em monocarbeto e dióxido de tungstênio (WC/C e WO2/C, respectivamente) para a reação de redução de oxigênio em eletrólitos ácidos. O tratamento ácido foi realizado mantendo-se uma certa quantidade do eletrocatisador em uma solução ácida (H2SO4 0,5 mol L-1) a 90ºC por 24 h. Os catalisadores Pt3Co/C e Pt3Cr/C foram caracterizados antes e após o tratamento pelas seguintes técnicas: Espectroscopia por Dispersão de Energia de Raios X (EDX), Difratometria de Raios X (DRX), Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão (MET), Espectroscopia de Absorção de Raios X (XAS), como também submetidos a testes eletroquímicos. Os resultados mostraram que os metais menos nobres foram lixiviados devido ao tratamento ácido e que houve variações da região do potencial de redução de óxidos. Em relação aos carbertos de tungstênio, este foram sintetizados pelo método sonoquímico e caracterizados por EDX, DRX e MET. Os resultados eletroquímicos obtidos a partir desses materiais não apresentaram atividade catalítica significante para a RRO, porém, quando se tem Pt ancorada nesse material, a reação de redução de oxigênio é catalisada, similarmente ao desempenho de Pt/C, e segue uma reação via 4 elétrons. Já os materiais formados por dióxido de tungstênio foram sintetizados pelo método de impregnação e também foram caracterizados por EDX, DRX e MET. Os dados obtidos nos testes eletroquímicos destes materiais demonstraram uma certa atividade catalítica para RRO, e que esta reação se ocorre via 2 elétrons. Já para os materiais com Pt suportada em WO2/C, a reação segue a conhecida via 4 elétrons, como no caso de Pt/C. Ao serem submetidos ao tratamento ácido, tanto os catalisadores suportados em WC/C quanto os suportados em WO2/C apresentaram maior estabilidade quando comparados ao Pt/C comercial. / The objectives of this work were: i) to study the degradation of Pt-M catalysts (where M = Co and Cr) supported on carbon after acid treatment and their catalytic activities for the oxygen reduction reaction; ii) to evaluate the performance and stability of platinum electrocatalysts based in tungsten monocarbide (WC/C) and tungsten dioxide (WO2/C) for the oxygen reduction reaction in acidic electrolytes. The acid treatment was carried out by keeping a certain amount of eletrocatalyst in an acidic solution (H2SO4 0.5 mol L-1) at 90°C for 24 h. The Pt3Co/C and Pt3Cr/C catalysts were characterized before and after treatment by the following techniques: Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS), followed by electrochemical tests. The results showed that the non-noble metals have been leached due to the acid treatment and that there are variations in the potential region of oxide reduction. Tungsten carbides, were synthesized by a chemistry and characterized by EDS, XRD and TEM. The electrochemical results obtained for the WC/C materials showed no significant catalytic activity for the ORR, but when Pt is anchored, the oxygen reduction reaction is catalyzed, and the performance is similar to that of Pt/C, and with reaction following the 4 electrons pathways. The materials formed by tungsten dioxide were synthesized by an impregnation method, and also characterized by EDS, XRD and TEM. The data obtained in the electrochemical tests of the bare materials showed some catalytic activity for ORR, but the reaction is promoted via the 2 electrons pathways. As for the previous cases the materials formed by Pt supported on WO2/C the reaction follows the 4 electrons steps. When subjected to the acid treatment, as in the case of the catalysts supported on WC/C, the WO2/C-supported materials had higher stability when compared to the commercial Pt/C catalyst.

Durante o desenvolvimento deste projeto, foram obtidos diversos resultados relativos à construção de distintos sensores eletroquímicos para a determinação de oxigênio em meio aquoso em amostras biológicas e ambientais. Para a construção destes sensores foram usadas diferentes superfícies eletródicas, preparadas pela incorporação de porfirinas de cobalto sintetizadas e caracterizadas no laboratório do Prof. Dr. Koiti Araki, tais como a 5,10,15,20-meso-tetrafenilporfirina de cobalto (CoTPP) e a [tetrakis-bisdimetil-bipiridina cloro rutênio(II)]-5,10,15,20-Tetrapiridinaporfirina de cobalto (II) (CoTRP). Eletrodos de ouro modificados com nanoestruturas de ouro também foram empregados para a detecção de oxigênio. Em alguns casos, óxido de grafeno (GO) foi imobilizado nas superfícies eletródicas para melhorar o transporte de elétrons. Porfirinas de CoTPP foram imobilizadas em eletrodo de carbono vítreo (GCE) e o comportamento eletroquímico desse eletrodo modificado para a redução de oxigênio em solução aquosa de KNO3 0,1 mol L-1 foi comparado com o do GCE, observando-se diminuição do sobrepotencial. A utilidade do sensor foi demonstrada pelo monitoramento amperométrico contínuo do consumo de oxigênio mitocondrial e os resultados foram concordantes com aqueles obtidos em medições paralelas realizadas usando um eletrodo comercial (\"eletrodo de Clark\"). GO foi misturado com a porfirina de CoTRP para a preparação de compósitos, os quais foram posteriormente imobilizados em superfícies eletródicas. Verificou-se que as moléculas de CoTRP ficavam em forma horizontal na superfície do GO, gerando nanoestruturas mais dispersas em meios aquosos dependendo da quantidade relativa de CoTRP e GO. Esta característica foi usada para modular a atividade eletrocatalítica dos compostos na reação de redução de oxigênio (ORR) em meio neutro. O material foi caracterizado por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, Raman, espectroscopia UV-vis e microscopia de força atômica (AFM), e os resultados confirmaram que a porfirina CoTRP é fortemente ancorada no GO por meio de interações eletrostáticas. A ORR no eletrodo modificado CoTRP/GO foi avaliada por técnicas eletroquímicas e baixo sobrepotencial (0,05 V) foi notado no processo de quatro elétrons envolvendo a redução do oxigênio. Esse valor é dramaticamente deslocado para potenciais menos negativos (0,88V em relação ao GCE), e o excelente desempenho do eletrodo permite sua utilização como sensor efetivo para o monitoramento contínuo de oxigênio dissolvido em meio aquoso. Filmes nanoporosos de ouro (NPGF) foram preparados em superfície de ouro pela aplicação de potencial de 2,0 V por 60 minutos em solução de H2SO4 0,5 mol L-1. A presença de nanoestruturas de ouro foi confirmada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e o eletrodo NPGF mostrou atividade eletrocatalítica superior para a ORR em comparação com a superfície polida de ouro Superfícies de ouro mais ativas eletrocataliticamente também foram preparadas por redução eletroquímica de Au3+ em eletrodos de carbono vítreo. Com um tempo de deposição ótimo de 90 s, superfícies rugosas foram obtidas e caracterizadas por MEV e difração de raios X (XRD). Esses eletrodos modificados foram empregados com sucesso para o monitoramento de oxigênio dissolvido em amostras de água e o desempenho analítico foi avaliado com base em parâmetros como sensibilidade, seletividade, reprodutibilidade, estabilidade e limite de detecção (LOD). / During the development of this project, several results were obtained concerning the construction of different electrochemical sensors for the determination of oxygen in aqueous media in biological and environmental samples. Different electrode surfaces were used for the construction of these sensors, which were prepared by the incorporation of cobalt porphyrins synthesized and characterized in the laboratory of Prof. Koiti Araki, such as cobalt 5,10,15,20-meso- tetraphenylporphyrin (CoTPP) and [tetrakis-bisdimethyl-bipyridine chlorine (II)] - 5,10,15,20-Cobalt tetrahydrin (II) (CoTRP). Gold electrodes modified with gold nanostructures were also employed for the detection of oxygen. In some cases, graphene oxide (GO) was immobilized on the electrode surfaces to improve the electron transport. CoTPP porphyrins were immobilized on a vitreous carbon electrode (GCE) and the electrochemical behavior of this modified electrode for the reduction of oxygen in 0.1 mol L-1 KNO3 aqueous solution was compared with that of a GCE, a reduction of the overpotential being observed. The utility of the sensor was demonstrated by the continuous amperometric monitoring of the mitochondrial oxygen consumption and the results were in agreement with those obtained in parallel measurements performed by using a commercial electrode (\"Clark electrode\"). GO was mixed with the CoTRP porphyrin for the preparation of composites, which were subsequently immobilized on electrode surfaces. The CoTRP molecules were found to be horizontal in the GO surface, generating more dispersed nanostructures in aqueous media depending on the relative amount of CoTRP and GO. This characteristic was used to modulate the electrocatalytic activity of the compounds in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in neutral medium. The material was characterized by transmission electron microscopy, Raman, UV-vis spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and the results confirmed that CoTRP porphyrin is strongly anchored in the GO by means of electrostatic interactions. The ORR in the modified CoTRP / GO electrode was evaluated by electrochemical techniques and a low overpotential (0.05 V) was observed in the four-electrons process involving the reduction of oxygen. This value is dramatically shifted to less negative potentials (0.88V compared to GCE), and the excellent electrode performance allows its use as an effective sensor for the continuous monitoring of oxygen dissolved in aqueous medium. Gold nanoporous films (NPGF) were prepared on a gold surface by application of 2.0 V for 60 minutes in 0.5 mol L-1 H2SO4 solution. The presence of gold nanostructures was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the NPGF electrode showed superior electrocatalytic activity for the ORR compared to the gold polished surface. More electrocatalytically active gold surfaces were also prepared by electrochemical reduction of Au3+ on glassy carbon electrodes. With an optimum deposition time of 90 s, rough surfaces were obtained and characterized by SEM and XRD. These modified electrodes were successfully used for the monitoring of dissolved oxygen in water samples and the analytical performance was evaluated based on parameters such as sensitivity, selectivity, reproducibility, stability and limit of detection (LOD).

O envelhecimento dos eletrocatalisadores utilizados em cátodos de células a combustível de eletrólito polimérico (PEMFCs) é um dos principais fatores que restringem sua aplicação como conversores de energia em larga escala. Esse trabalho visa contribuir para o aprimoramento da estabilidade de nanopartículas de platina (NPs de Pt) por meio da modificação do suporte catalítico aos quais encontram-se impregnadas. Desse modo, foram realizadas sínteses de suportes catalíticos baseados em óxidos de molibdênio (MoO3 e MoO2) ancorados em carbono Vulcan® XC72-R, sendo os materiais produzidos caracterizados física, estrutural e eletroquimicamente antes e após a impregnação de NPs de Pt. Para investigar a estabilidade dos eletrocatalisadores, foi realizado um teste de degradação eletroquímico acelerado, o qual consistiu em aplicar os ciclos de potenciais entre 0,6 e 1,0 V vs. ERH por curto período de tempo. Os resultados mostraram que os métodos de síntese utilizados foram satisfatórios, levando a formação dos catalisadores com as proporções bem próximas das requeridas. O catalisador Pt/MoO3-C apresentou a maior atividade específica frente a reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO), atribuída a efeitos sinérgicos metal/suporte. Quando investigada a estabilidade dos materiais frente ao teste de degradação eletroquímico acelerado, observou-se que, a princípio, nenhum dos óxidos de molibdênio diminui a extensão da degradação da platina. Analisando-se as atividades específicas frente à RRO para cada catalisador antes e após o envelhecimento eletroquímico, foi observado que Pt/MoO2-C apresentou-se como o material mais estável dentre os demais. / The aging of Pt based electrocatalysts used in the polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEMFC) cathodes is one of the main issues that restrict its wide application as energy converters. This work aims to contribute to the improvement of the stability of platinum nanoparticles (Pt NPs) by modification of the catalyst support at which they are impregnated. Thus, syntheses of catalyst supports based on molybdenum oxide (MoO3 and MoO2) anchored on Vulcan® XC72-R carbon were carried out and the produced materials were characterized physically, structurally and electrochemically prior and after impregnation of the Pt NPs. To investigate their stability, an electrochemical accelerated degradation test was performed, which consisted of applying a large number of short duration potential cycling steps between 0.6 and 1.0 V vs. RHE. The results showed that the synthetic methods used here were satisfactory, leading to the formation of catalysts with compositions near to those expected. The Pt/MoO3-C catalyst showed the highest specific activity toward the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and this was attributed to metal/support synergistic effects. When the stability against electrochemical accelerated degradation test of the materials was investigated, it was observed that, in principle, none of the molybdenum oxides really decreases the extent of platinum degradation. However, comparing the specific activities towards the ORR for each catalyst, before and after electrochemical aging, it is concluded that Pt/MoO2-C is the most stable material among all others.

Unlike polymer electrolyte fuel cells, solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) have the potential to use a wide variety of fuels, including hydrocarbons and gasified coal or different types of ample carbonaceous solids. However, the conventional anode for an SOFC, a composite consisting of nickel and yttria-stabilized-zirconia (YSZ), is highly susceptible to carbon buildup (coking) and deactivation (poisoning) by contaminants commonly encountered in readily available fuels. Further, the low ionic conductivity of the electrolyte and the poor performance of the cathode at lower temperatures require SOFCs to operate at high temperatures (>800°C), thereby increasing costs and reduce system operation life. Thus, in order to make SOFCs fully fuel-flexible, cost-effective power systems, the issues of anode tolerance to coking and sulfur poisoning as well as the slow ionic conduction in the electrolyte and the sluggish kinetics at the cathode need to be addressed. In this thesis, a novel electrolyte was shown to have the highest ionic conductivity below 750°C of all known electrolyte materials for SOFCs applications, which allowed for fabrication of a thin-electrolyte cell with high power output at lower temperatures. The detailed electrochemical analyses of BZCYYb conductor revealed that the conductivities were sensitive to doping and partial pressure of oxygen, hydrogen, and water. When used in combination with Ni as a composite anode (Ni-BZCYYb), it was shown to provide excellent tolerance to coking and sulfur poisoning. Extensive investigations on surfaces of BZCYYb and Ni by Raman Spectroscopy and Scanning Auger Nanoprobe disclosed that its unique ability appears linked to the mixed conductor's enhanced catalytic activity for sulfur oxidation and hydrocarbon cracking/reforming, as well as enhanced multilayer water adsorption capability. In addition, the nanostructured oxide layers on Ni from dispersion of BZCYYb traces during high-temperature calcinations may effectively suppress the formation of carbon from dehydrogenation. Based on the fundamental understanding on surface properties, a new and simple modification strategy was developed to hinder the carbon-induced deactivation of the state-of-the-art Ni-YSZ anode. Compared to the complex Ni-BZCYYb anode, this modified Ni-YSZ anode could be readily adopted in the latest fuel cell systems based on YSZ electrolyte. The much-improved power output and tolerance to coking of the modified Ni-YSZ anode were attributed to the nanostructured BaO/Ni interfaces observed by synchrotron-based X-ray and advanced electron microscopy, which readily adsorbed water and facilitated water-mediated carbon removal reactions. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations predicted that the dissociated OH from H₂O on BaO reacted with C on Ni near the BaO/Ni interface to produce CO and H species, which were then electrochemically oxidized at the triple-phase boundaries of the anode. Also, some new insights into the sulfur poisoning behavior of the Ni-YSZ anode have been revealed. The so-called "second-stage poisoning" commonly reported in the literatures can be avoided by using a new sealant, indicating that this poisoning is unlikely the inherent electrochemical behavior of a Ni-YSZ anode but associated with other complications. Furthermore, a new composite cathode with simultaneous transport of proton, oxygen vacancies and electronic defects was developed for low-temperature SOFCs based on oxide proton conductors. Compared to the conventional oxygen ion-electron conducting cathode, this cathode is very active for oxygen reduction, extending the electrochemically active sites and significantly reducing the cathodic polarization resistance. Towards the end, these findings have great potential to dramatically improve the economical competitiveness and commercial viability of SOFCs that are driven by cost-effective and renewable fuels.

Rare-event phenomena are ubiquitous in nature. We propose a new strategy, kappa-dynamics, to model rare event dynamics. In this methodology we only assume that the important rare-event dynamics obey first-order kinetics. Exact rates are not required in the calculation and the reaction path is determined on the fly. kappa-dynamics is highly parallelizable and can be implemented on computer clusters and distributed machines. Theoretical derivations and several examples of atomic scale dynamics are presented. With single-molecule (SM) techniques, the individual molecular process can be resolved without being averaged over the ensemble. However, factors such as apparatus stability, background level, and data quality will limit the amount of information being collected. We found that the correlation function calculated from the finite-size SM rotational diffusion trajectory will deviate from its true value. Therefore, care must be taken not to interpret the difference as the evidence of new dynamics occurred in the system. We also proposed an algorithm of single fluorophore orientation reconstruction which converts three measured intensities {I₀,I₄₅,I₉₀} to the dipole orientation. Fluctuations in the detected signals caused by the shot noise result in a different prediction from the true orientation. This difference should not be interpreted as the evidence of the nonisotropic rotational motion. Catalytic reactions are also governed by the rare-events. Studying the dynamics of catalytic processes is an important subject since the more we learn, the more we can improve current catalysts. Fuel cells have become a promising energy source in the past decade. The key to make a high performance cell while keeping the price low is the choice of a suitable catalyst at the electrodes. Density functional theory calculations are carried out to study the role of geometric relaxation in the oxygen-reduction reaction for nanoparticle of various transition metals. Our calculations of Pt nanoparticles show that the structural deformation induced by atomic oxygen binding can energetically stabilize the oxidized states and thus reduces the catalytic activity. The catalytic performance can be improved by making alloys with less deformable metals. / text