abstract: Fluorine (F) is a volatile constituent of magmas and hydrous mantle minerals. Compared to other volatile species, F is highly soluble in silicate melts, allowing F to remain in the melt during magma differentiation and rendering F less subject to disturbance during degassing upon magma ascent. Hence, the association between fluorine in basalts and fluorine in the mantle source region is more robust than for other volatile species. The ionic radius of F- is similar to that of OH- and O2-, and F may substitute for hydroxyl and oxygen in silicate minerals and melt. Fluorine is also incorporated at trace levels within nominally anhydrous minerals (NAMs) such as olivine, clinopyroxene, and plagioclase. Investigating the geochemical behavior of F in NAMs provides a means to estimate the pre-eruptive F contents of degassed magmas and to better understand the degassing behavior of H. The partition coefficients of F were determined for clinopyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and hornblende within melts of olivine-minette, augite-minette, basaltic andesite, and latite compositions. The samples analyzed were run products from previously-published phase-equilibria experiments. Fluorine was measured by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) using an 16O- primary beam and detection of negative secondary ions (19F-, 18O-, 28Si-). SIMS ion intensities are converted to concentrations by analyzing matrix-matched microanalytical reference materials and constructing calibration curves. For robust F calibration standards, five basaltic glasses (termed Fba glasses) were synthesized in-house using a natural tholeiite mixed with variable amounts of CaF2. The Fba glasses were characterized for F content and homogeneity, using both SIMS and electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA), and used as F standards. The partition coefficients for clinopyroxene (0.04-028) and olivine (0.01-0.16) varied with melt composition such that DF (olivine-minette) < DF (augite-minette) < DF (basaltic andesite) < DF (latite). Crystal chemical controls were found to influence the incorporation of F into clinopyroxene, but none were found that affected olivine. Fluorine partitioning was compared with that of OH within clinopyroxenes, and the alumina content of clinopyroxene was shown to be a strong influence on the incorporation of both anions. Fluorine substitution into both olivine and clinopyroxene was found to be strongly controlled by melt viscosity and degree of melt polymerization. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Geological Sciences 2012

A malária, causada por protozoários intracelulares do gênero Plasmodium, é uma das doenças tropicais mais devastadoras existentes. Mais de 3 bilhões de pessoas vivem em regiões endêmicas para a malária. Cinco espécies de Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae e knowlesi) causam doenças em humanos e a infecção com P. falciparum, o mais letal desses parasitas, resulta em mais de 1 milhão de mortes anualmente. O desenvolvimento de resistência aos fármacos antimaláricos tradicionais, leva ao uso de combinações de fármacos como a quinina (QN) e a doxiciclina (DOX). Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram desenvolver e caracterizar formulação de nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas (NLS) contendo a associação de QN/DOX, avaliar sua eficácia em um modelo in vivo de malária berghei, determinar a sua farmacocinética e o coeficiente de partição nos eritrócitos dos fármacos livres e nanoencapsulados. A formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX (2,0/0,2 mg/mL) foi preparada pela técnica de homogeneização a alta pressão, utilizando polissorbato 80 e Lipoid® como emulsionantes e palmitato de cetila como matriz lipídica. No estudo preliminar de estabilidade, a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX apresentou tamanho de partícula adequado (152,8 ± 5,26 nm), índice de polidispersão (0,173 ± 0,006), potencial zeta (-38,6 ± 1,82 mV), alto conteúdo dos fármacos (95,9% ± 0,70/ 94,1% ± 2,41) e adequada eficiência de encapsulação (94,2% ± 1,14/83,0% ± 2,52), após 21 dias de armazenamento em temperatura ambiente. Para a análise do teor um método rápido e específico de cromatografia líquida-acoplada a espectrometria de massa (LC-MS/MS) foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação simultânea de QN e DOX nas formulações. O método por LC-MS/MS utilizou coluna Waters Sun Fire C18 (50 mm x 3,0 mm de diâmetro) e a fase móvel foi composta de acetonitrila:ácido fórmico 0,1% (75:25, v/v), no fluxo de 0,45 mL/min (split 1:3). O volume de injeção foi de 10 μL. Ratos Wistar infectados por P. berghei foram utilizados para avaliar a eficácia da formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX utilizando diferentes regimes de dose. As doses efetivas da formulação, i.v. (75/7,5 mg/kg/dia) e oral (105/10,5 mg/kg/dia), representam uma redução de quase 30% em comparação com os fármacos livres utilizados em associação. A farmacocinética foi avaliada após a administração dos fármacos livres ou nanoencapsulados pela vias i.v. (10/1 mg/ kg) e oral (25/2,5 mg/kg) em ratos Wistar infectados. Para a quantificação das amostras de plasma dos ratos, método por LC-MS/MS foi desenvolvido e validado. A QN, a DOX e a cimetidina (padrão interno, PI) foram extraídos do plasma através de precipitação de proteínas e a fase móvel consistiu de metanol/ácido fórmico 0,1% (70:30, v/v), no fluxo de 0,5 mL / min (split 1:3). A detecção foi realizada através da ionização por electrospray positivo, no modo de monitoramento de reações múltiplas, onde foram monitoradas as transições 325,0>307,0, 445,0>428,1 e 252,8>159,0, para QN, DOX e PI, respectivamente. A análise foi realizada em 2,0 min e o método foi linear na faixa de concentração plasmática entre 5-5000 ng/mL. Nenhuma alteração significativa dos parâmetros farmacocinéticos foi observada para ambos os fármacos e vias de administração, após a nanoencapsulação. O coeficiente de partição da QN nos eritrócitos infectados por P. berghei aumentou (5,53 ± 0,28) quando a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX foi usada em comparação com os fármacos livres em associação (3,81± 0,23). Nenhuma alteração significativa na penetração intraeritrocitária da DOX foi observada com a nanoencapsulação. Os resultados demonstram que a nanoencapsulação da QN/DOX em NLS diminui a dose efetiva para o tratamento da malária, sendo uma alternativa interessante a ser investigada para o tratamento da malária falciparum resistente. / Malaria is one of the most devastating tropical diseases caused by intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. More than 3 billion people live in malarial endemic regions. Five species of Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae and knowlesi) cause disease in humans and infection with P. falciparum, the most deadly of these parasites, results in more than 1 million deaths annually. The development of resistance to traditional antimalarial drugs leads to the use of drug combinations such as quinine (QN)/doxycycline (DOX). In this context, the aims of this work were to develop and characterize solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) loaded with QN/ DOX, to evaluate their efficacy in an in vivo model of berghei malaria, and to determine their pharmacokinetics and erythrocyte partition coefficient compared to the non-encapsulated (free) drug association. The SLN were prepared by high pressure homogenization technique using polysorbate 80 and Lipoid® as emulsifiers and cetyl palmitate as lipid matrix. In the preliminary stability study, QN/DOX-loaded SLN (2.0/0.2 mg/mL) presented adequate particle size (152.8 ± 5.26 nm), polydispersion index (0.173 ± 0.006), zeta potential (-38.6 ± 1.82 mV), high drug content (95.9% ± 0.70/94.1% ± 2.41) and appropriate encapsulation efficiency (94.2% ± 1.14/83.0% ± 2.52) after 21 days of storage at room temperature. For the assay analysis, a fast and specific liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of QN and DOX. The LC-MS/MS method was carried out on a Sun Fire Waters C18 column (50 mm x 3.0 mm I.D.) and the mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid (75:25, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.45 mL/min (split 1:3). The injection volume was 10 μL. Plasmodium berghei infected Wistar rats were used to evaluate the efficacy of QN/DOX-loaded SLN using different dosing regimens. The effective QN/DOX-loaded SLN i.v. (75/7.5 mg/kg/day) and oral (105/10.5 mg/kg/day) doses represent an almost 30% reduction compared to the free drugs in association. Plasma pharmacokinetics was evaluated after administration of free or nanoencapsulated QN/DOX by i.v. (10/1 mg/kg) and oral (25/2.5 mg/kg) routes to infected Wistar rats. For the quantification of the rat plasma samples, a fast, sensitive and specific LC-MS-MS method was developed and validated for the determination of QN and DOX. QN, DOX and cimetidine (internal standard, IS) were extracted from the plasma by protein precipitation and the mobile phase consisted of methanol/formic acid 0.1% (70:30, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min (split 1:3). Detection was carried out by positive Electrospray Ionization in multiple reaction monitoring mode, monitoring the transitions 325.0>307.0, 445.0>428.1 and 252.8>159.0, for QN, DOX and IS, respectively. The analysis was carried out in 2.0 min and the method was linear in the plasma concentration range of 5-5000 ng/mL. No significant alteration of pharmacokinetic parameters was observed for both drugs and routes of dosing after nanoencapsulation. QN partition coefficient into P. berghei infected erythrocyte was increased (5.53 ± 0.28) when the QN/DOX-loaded SLN was used in comparison with the free drugs in association (3.81 ± 0.23). No significant alteration on DOX erythrocyte partition coefficient was observed. In summary, the results showed that QN/DOX nanoencapsulation into SLN allows the reduction of the effective antimalarial dose being an interesting alternative to be investigated for the treatment of falciparum resistant malaria.

A malária, causada por protozoários intracelulares do gênero Plasmodium, é uma das doenças tropicais mais devastadoras existentes. Mais de 3 bilhões de pessoas vivem em regiões endêmicas para a malária. Cinco espécies de Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae e knowlesi) causam doenças em humanos e a infecção com P. falciparum, o mais letal desses parasitas, resulta em mais de 1 milhão de mortes anualmente. O desenvolvimento de resistência aos fármacos antimaláricos tradicionais, leva ao uso de combinações de fármacos como a quinina (QN) e a doxiciclina (DOX). Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram desenvolver e caracterizar formulação de nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas (NLS) contendo a associação de QN/DOX, avaliar sua eficácia em um modelo in vivo de malária berghei, determinar a sua farmacocinética e o coeficiente de partição nos eritrócitos dos fármacos livres e nanoencapsulados. A formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX (2,0/0,2 mg/mL) foi preparada pela técnica de homogeneização a alta pressão, utilizando polissorbato 80 e Lipoid® como emulsionantes e palmitato de cetila como matriz lipídica. No estudo preliminar de estabilidade, a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX apresentou tamanho de partícula adequado (152,8 ± 5,26 nm), índice de polidispersão (0,173 ± 0,006), potencial zeta (-38,6 ± 1,82 mV), alto conteúdo dos fármacos (95,9% ± 0,70/ 94,1% ± 2,41) e adequada eficiência de encapsulação (94,2% ± 1,14/83,0% ± 2,52), após 21 dias de armazenamento em temperatura ambiente. Para a análise do teor um método rápido e específico de cromatografia líquida-acoplada a espectrometria de massa (LC-MS/MS) foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação simultânea de QN e DOX nas formulações. O método por LC-MS/MS utilizou coluna Waters Sun Fire C18 (50 mm x 3,0 mm de diâmetro) e a fase móvel foi composta de acetonitrila:ácido fórmico 0,1% (75:25, v/v), no fluxo de 0,45 mL/min (split 1:3). O volume de injeção foi de 10 μL. Ratos Wistar infectados por P. berghei foram utilizados para avaliar a eficácia da formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX utilizando diferentes regimes de dose. As doses efetivas da formulação, i.v. (75/7,5 mg/kg/dia) e oral (105/10,5 mg/kg/dia), representam uma redução de quase 30% em comparação com os fármacos livres utilizados em associação. A farmacocinética foi avaliada após a administração dos fármacos livres ou nanoencapsulados pela vias i.v. (10/1 mg/ kg) e oral (25/2,5 mg/kg) em ratos Wistar infectados. Para a quantificação das amostras de plasma dos ratos, método por LC-MS/MS foi desenvolvido e validado. A QN, a DOX e a cimetidina (padrão interno, PI) foram extraídos do plasma através de precipitação de proteínas e a fase móvel consistiu de metanol/ácido fórmico 0,1% (70:30, v/v), no fluxo de 0,5 mL / min (split 1:3). A detecção foi realizada através da ionização por electrospray positivo, no modo de monitoramento de reações múltiplas, onde foram monitoradas as transições 325,0>307,0, 445,0>428,1 e 252,8>159,0, para QN, DOX e PI, respectivamente. A análise foi realizada em 2,0 min e o método foi linear na faixa de concentração plasmática entre 5-5000 ng/mL. Nenhuma alteração significativa dos parâmetros farmacocinéticos foi observada para ambos os fármacos e vias de administração, após a nanoencapsulação. O coeficiente de partição da QN nos eritrócitos infectados por P. berghei aumentou (5,53 ± 0,28) quando a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX foi usada em comparação com os fármacos livres em associação (3,81± 0,23). Nenhuma alteração significativa na penetração intraeritrocitária da DOX foi observada com a nanoencapsulação. Os resultados demonstram que a nanoencapsulação da QN/DOX em NLS diminui a dose efetiva para o tratamento da malária, sendo uma alternativa interessante a ser investigada para o tratamento da malária falciparum resistente. / Malaria is one of the most devastating tropical diseases caused by intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. More than 3 billion people live in malarial endemic regions. Five species of Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae and knowlesi) cause disease in humans and infection with P. falciparum, the most deadly of these parasites, results in more than 1 million deaths annually. The development of resistance to traditional antimalarial drugs leads to the use of drug combinations such as quinine (QN)/doxycycline (DOX). In this context, the aims of this work were to develop and characterize solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) loaded with QN/ DOX, to evaluate their efficacy in an in vivo model of berghei malaria, and to determine their pharmacokinetics and erythrocyte partition coefficient compared to the non-encapsulated (free) drug association. The SLN were prepared by high pressure homogenization technique using polysorbate 80 and Lipoid® as emulsifiers and cetyl palmitate as lipid matrix. In the preliminary stability study, QN/DOX-loaded SLN (2.0/0.2 mg/mL) presented adequate particle size (152.8 ± 5.26 nm), polydispersion index (0.173 ± 0.006), zeta potential (-38.6 ± 1.82 mV), high drug content (95.9% ± 0.70/94.1% ± 2.41) and appropriate encapsulation efficiency (94.2% ± 1.14/83.0% ± 2.52) after 21 days of storage at room temperature. For the assay analysis, a fast and specific liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of QN and DOX. The LC-MS/MS method was carried out on a Sun Fire Waters C18 column (50 mm x 3.0 mm I.D.) and the mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid (75:25, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.45 mL/min (split 1:3). The injection volume was 10 μL. Plasmodium berghei infected Wistar rats were used to evaluate the efficacy of QN/DOX-loaded SLN using different dosing regimens. The effective QN/DOX-loaded SLN i.v. (75/7.5 mg/kg/day) and oral (105/10.5 mg/kg/day) doses represent an almost 30% reduction compared to the free drugs in association. Plasma pharmacokinetics was evaluated after administration of free or nanoencapsulated QN/DOX by i.v. (10/1 mg/kg) and oral (25/2.5 mg/kg) routes to infected Wistar rats. For the quantification of the rat plasma samples, a fast, sensitive and specific LC-MS-MS method was developed and validated for the determination of QN and DOX. QN, DOX and cimetidine (internal standard, IS) were extracted from the plasma by protein precipitation and the mobile phase consisted of methanol/formic acid 0.1% (70:30, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min (split 1:3). Detection was carried out by positive Electrospray Ionization in multiple reaction monitoring mode, monitoring the transitions 325.0>307.0, 445.0>428.1 and 252.8>159.0, for QN, DOX and IS, respectively. The analysis was carried out in 2.0 min and the method was linear in the plasma concentration range of 5-5000 ng/mL. No significant alteration of pharmacokinetic parameters was observed for both drugs and routes of dosing after nanoencapsulation. QN partition coefficient into P. berghei infected erythrocyte was increased (5.53 ± 0.28) when the QN/DOX-loaded SLN was used in comparison with the free drugs in association (3.81 ± 0.23). No significant alteration on DOX erythrocyte partition coefficient was observed. In summary, the results showed that QN/DOX nanoencapsulation into SLN allows the reduction of the effective antimalarial dose being an interesting alternative to be investigated for the treatment of falciparum resistant malaria.

A malária, causada por protozoários intracelulares do gênero Plasmodium, é uma das doenças tropicais mais devastadoras existentes. Mais de 3 bilhões de pessoas vivem em regiões endêmicas para a malária. Cinco espécies de Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae e knowlesi) causam doenças em humanos e a infecção com P. falciparum, o mais letal desses parasitas, resulta em mais de 1 milhão de mortes anualmente. O desenvolvimento de resistência aos fármacos antimaláricos tradicionais, leva ao uso de combinações de fármacos como a quinina (QN) e a doxiciclina (DOX). Nesse contexto, os objetivos deste trabalho foram desenvolver e caracterizar formulação de nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas (NLS) contendo a associação de QN/DOX, avaliar sua eficácia em um modelo in vivo de malária berghei, determinar a sua farmacocinética e o coeficiente de partição nos eritrócitos dos fármacos livres e nanoencapsulados. A formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX (2,0/0,2 mg/mL) foi preparada pela técnica de homogeneização a alta pressão, utilizando polissorbato 80 e Lipoid® como emulsionantes e palmitato de cetila como matriz lipídica. No estudo preliminar de estabilidade, a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX apresentou tamanho de partícula adequado (152,8 ± 5,26 nm), índice de polidispersão (0,173 ± 0,006), potencial zeta (-38,6 ± 1,82 mV), alto conteúdo dos fármacos (95,9% ± 0,70/ 94,1% ± 2,41) e adequada eficiência de encapsulação (94,2% ± 1,14/83,0% ± 2,52), após 21 dias de armazenamento em temperatura ambiente. Para a análise do teor um método rápido e específico de cromatografia líquida-acoplada a espectrometria de massa (LC-MS/MS) foi desenvolvido e validado para a determinação simultânea de QN e DOX nas formulações. O método por LC-MS/MS utilizou coluna Waters Sun Fire C18 (50 mm x 3,0 mm de diâmetro) e a fase móvel foi composta de acetonitrila:ácido fórmico 0,1% (75:25, v/v), no fluxo de 0,45 mL/min (split 1:3). O volume de injeção foi de 10 μL. Ratos Wistar infectados por P. berghei foram utilizados para avaliar a eficácia da formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX utilizando diferentes regimes de dose. As doses efetivas da formulação, i.v. (75/7,5 mg/kg/dia) e oral (105/10,5 mg/kg/dia), representam uma redução de quase 30% em comparação com os fármacos livres utilizados em associação. A farmacocinética foi avaliada após a administração dos fármacos livres ou nanoencapsulados pela vias i.v. (10/1 mg/ kg) e oral (25/2,5 mg/kg) em ratos Wistar infectados. Para a quantificação das amostras de plasma dos ratos, método por LC-MS/MS foi desenvolvido e validado. A QN, a DOX e a cimetidina (padrão interno, PI) foram extraídos do plasma através de precipitação de proteínas e a fase móvel consistiu de metanol/ácido fórmico 0,1% (70:30, v/v), no fluxo de 0,5 mL / min (split 1:3). A detecção foi realizada através da ionização por electrospray positivo, no modo de monitoramento de reações múltiplas, onde foram monitoradas as transições 325,0>307,0, 445,0>428,1 e 252,8>159,0, para QN, DOX e PI, respectivamente. A análise foi realizada em 2,0 min e o método foi linear na faixa de concentração plasmática entre 5-5000 ng/mL. Nenhuma alteração significativa dos parâmetros farmacocinéticos foi observada para ambos os fármacos e vias de administração, após a nanoencapsulação. O coeficiente de partição da QN nos eritrócitos infectados por P. berghei aumentou (5,53 ± 0,28) quando a formulação de NLS contendo QN/DOX foi usada em comparação com os fármacos livres em associação (3,81± 0,23). Nenhuma alteração significativa na penetração intraeritrocitária da DOX foi observada com a nanoencapsulação. Os resultados demonstram que a nanoencapsulação da QN/DOX em NLS diminui a dose efetiva para o tratamento da malária, sendo uma alternativa interessante a ser investigada para o tratamento da malária falciparum resistente. / Malaria is one of the most devastating tropical diseases caused by intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. More than 3 billion people live in malarial endemic regions. Five species of Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae and knowlesi) cause disease in humans and infection with P. falciparum, the most deadly of these parasites, results in more than 1 million deaths annually. The development of resistance to traditional antimalarial drugs leads to the use of drug combinations such as quinine (QN)/doxycycline (DOX). In this context, the aims of this work were to develop and characterize solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) loaded with QN/ DOX, to evaluate their efficacy in an in vivo model of berghei malaria, and to determine their pharmacokinetics and erythrocyte partition coefficient compared to the non-encapsulated (free) drug association. The SLN were prepared by high pressure homogenization technique using polysorbate 80 and Lipoid® as emulsifiers and cetyl palmitate as lipid matrix. In the preliminary stability study, QN/DOX-loaded SLN (2.0/0.2 mg/mL) presented adequate particle size (152.8 ± 5.26 nm), polydispersion index (0.173 ± 0.006), zeta potential (-38.6 ± 1.82 mV), high drug content (95.9% ± 0.70/94.1% ± 2.41) and appropriate encapsulation efficiency (94.2% ± 1.14/83.0% ± 2.52) after 21 days of storage at room temperature. For the assay analysis, a fast and specific liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of QN and DOX. The LC-MS/MS method was carried out on a Sun Fire Waters C18 column (50 mm x 3.0 mm I.D.) and the mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid (75:25, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.45 mL/min (split 1:3). The injection volume was 10 μL. Plasmodium berghei infected Wistar rats were used to evaluate the efficacy of QN/DOX-loaded SLN using different dosing regimens. The effective QN/DOX-loaded SLN i.v. (75/7.5 mg/kg/day) and oral (105/10.5 mg/kg/day) doses represent an almost 30% reduction compared to the free drugs in association. Plasma pharmacokinetics was evaluated after administration of free or nanoencapsulated QN/DOX by i.v. (10/1 mg/kg) and oral (25/2.5 mg/kg) routes to infected Wistar rats. For the quantification of the rat plasma samples, a fast, sensitive and specific LC-MS-MS method was developed and validated for the determination of QN and DOX. QN, DOX and cimetidine (internal standard, IS) were extracted from the plasma by protein precipitation and the mobile phase consisted of methanol/formic acid 0.1% (70:30, v/v), run at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min (split 1:3). Detection was carried out by positive Electrospray Ionization in multiple reaction monitoring mode, monitoring the transitions 325.0>307.0, 445.0>428.1 and 252.8>159.0, for QN, DOX and IS, respectively. The analysis was carried out in 2.0 min and the method was linear in the plasma concentration range of 5-5000 ng/mL. No significant alteration of pharmacokinetic parameters was observed for both drugs and routes of dosing after nanoencapsulation. QN partition coefficient into P. berghei infected erythrocyte was increased (5.53 ± 0.28) when the QN/DOX-loaded SLN was used in comparison with the free drugs in association (3.81 ± 0.23). No significant alteration on DOX erythrocyte partition coefficient was observed. In summary, the results showed that QN/DOX nanoencapsulation into SLN allows the reduction of the effective antimalarial dose being an interesting alternative to be investigated for the treatment of falciparum resistant malaria.

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Heightened concerns for cleaner air and increasingly more stringent regulations on sulphur content in transportation fuels will make desulphurization more and more important. The sulphur problem is becoming more serious in general, particularly for diesel fuels as the regulated sulphur content is getting an order of magnitude lower, while the sulphur contents of crude oils are becoming higher. This thesis aimed to develop a desulphurisation process (based on oxidation followed by extraction) with high efficiency, selectivity and minimum energy consumption leading to minimum environmental impact via laboratory batch experiments, mathematical modelling and optimisation. Deep desulphurization of model sulphur compounds (di-n-butyl sulphide, dimethyl sulfoxide and dibenzothiophene) and heavy gas oils (HGO) derived from Libyan crude oil were conducted. A series of batch experiments were carried out using a small reactor operating at various temperatures (40 ¿ 100 0C) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as oxidant and formic acid (HCOOH) as catalyst. Kinetic models for the oxidation process are then developed based on `total sulphur approach¿. Extraction of unoxidised and oxidised gas oils was also investigated using methanol, dimethylformamide (DMF) and N-methyl pyrolidone (NMP) as solvents. For each solvent, the `measures¿ such as: the partition coefficient (KP), effectiveness factor (Kf) and extractor factor (Ef) are used to select the best/effective solvent and to find the effective heavy gas oil/solvent ratios. A CSTR model is then developed for the process for evaluating viability of the large scale operation. It is noted that while the energy consumption and recovery issues could be ignored for batch experiments these could not be ignored for large scale operation. Large amount of heating is necessary even to carry out the reaction at 30-40 0C, the recovery of which is very important for maximising the profitability of operation and also to minimise environmental impact by reducing net CO2 release. Here the heat integration of the oxidation process is considered to recover most of the external energy input. However, this leads to putting a number of heat exchangers in the oxidation process requiring capital investment. Optimisation problem is formulated using gPROMS modelling tool to optimise some of the design and operating parameters (such as reaction temperature, residence time and splitter ratio) of integrated process while minimising an objective function which is a coupled function of capital and operating costs involving design and operating parameters. Two cases are studied: where (i) HGO and catalyst are fed as one feed stream and (ii) HGO and catalyst are treated as two feed streams. A liquid-liquid extraction model is then developed for the extraction of sulphur compounds from the oxidised heavy gas oil. With the experimentally determined KP multi stage liquid-liquid extraction process is modelled using gPROMS software and the process is simulated for three different solvents at different oil/solvent ratios to select the best solvent, and to obtain the best heavy gas oil to solvent ratio and number of extraction stages to reduce the sulphur content to less than 10 ppm. Finally, an integrated oxidation and extraction steps of ODS process is developed based on the batch experiments and modelling. The recovery of oxidant, catalyst and solvent are considered and preliminary economic analysis for the integrated ODS process is presented.

Silicate melt inclusions (MI) are small samples of melt that are trapped during crystal growth at magmatic pressures and temperatures. The MI represent a sample of the melt that was isolated from the magma during host crystal growth. Thus, MI provide a valuable tool for constraining the magmatic history of igneous systems because they provide an unambiguous method to directly determine compositions of melts from which the host crystal grew. As such, coupled petrographic examination and geochemical analyses of MI and host crystals can reveal information about crystal/melt processes in igneous systems that are difficult (or impossible) to assess through conventional methods. Many studies have used MI to monitor large scale petrogenetic processes such as partial melting and fractional crystallization. The research presented below focuses on using MI to constrain processes that operate at the crystal/melt interface because MI are samples of melt that resided adjacent to the host crystal prior to entrapment as an inclusion. Chapter one addresses challenges associated with preparing small crystals containing MI for geochemical analysis. In chapter two trace element analyses of MI and the immediately adjacent host zircon crystals are used to determine zircon/melt partition coefficients. In chapter 3 the significance of boundary layer development adjacent to growing crystals is evaluated by comparing the trace element compositions of MI host crystals that have significantly different trace element mineral/melt partitioning behavior. / Ph. D.

The process of assembling metal nanoparticles at the interface of two liquids has received a great interest over the past few years due to a wide range of important applications and their unusual properties compared to bulk materials. The work in this thesis presents a low cost, simple and cheap synthesis of metal nanoparticles, core/shell structures and semiconductors followed by assembly of these particles between immiscible liquids. The aim of this thesis is divided to three parts (Summary of the experimental work of this thesis is in Table A1):1) To achieve a closed loop recycling for producing cadmium sulfide as powders and/or nanostructured thin films for solar cells or other optoelectronic devices applications. A series of bis(dialkyldithiocarbamato)cadmium(II) were used for this approach. Bis(dioctyldithiocarbamato)cadmium(II) complexes proved to be the optimal alkyl chain for this process. The approach can be extended to other metal sulfides such as those of Zn, Pb, Cu, or Fe and many transition metals and oxides.2) To explore the phenomena of exchange bias in very small size particles (5 nm) of Ni/NiO (core/shell structure) obtained by solution phase synthesis. Ferromagnetism (FM) due to exchange bias is well established in the case of larger particles with diameters over 10 nm. However, sub 10 nm magnetic structures synthesized by solution phase have never been found to be ferromagnetic at room temperature. These Ni/NiO nanocrystals with ferromagnetic properties at room temperature were among the smallest and strongest magnets made in solution. Similar magnets can be obtained using a rare class of high anisotropy materials nearly all of which feature precious metals. This work would lead to significantly cheaper magnetic particles suited for the mass market. The applications of this work can be applied to produce viable storage devices and the other possibility is to disperse these nanocrystals in solution and use it to make ferrofluids which have a number of mature applications. Functional device architectures of these particles were rapidly and inexpensively produced as thin films using self-assembly of liquid/liquid interface process at room temperature by using octylamine as a surfactant.3) To synthesise and assemble submicron particles of silver, cobalt and nickel by using polyol methods and liquid/liquid interface, respectively. The effect of reaction conditions (solvent, precursor concentration, temperature, etc.) on synthesis and assembly of the particles was studied. Assembled cobalt and nickel as films are promising materials for spintronics, magnetic and magneto-electronics and biomedics. The nature and characteristics of the particles and their films were studied by a number of techniques such as SEM, EDX, TEM, p-XRD, UV-Vis, PL, FTIR, DLS and SQUID for magnetic measurements.

Les alcalins, généralement lithophiles à basse température, deviennent volatils à haute température et/ou sous des conditions réductrices. Il existe peu de données expérimentales sur les relations activité-composition dans les silicates fondus et aucun modèle thermodynamique ne permet de prédire leur comportement dans les liquides silicatés. Pour acquérir une base de données cohérente sur ces relations, nous avons développé un nouveau système expérimental permettant d'imposer et de contrôler, à haute température, une pression partielle de sodium sous des conditions d'oxydoréduction fixées. Une cellule thermochimique originale, simple de mise en œuvre et efficace a été conçue pour contraindre l’ensemble de ces paramètres thermodynamiques. Les résultats de cette étude montrent que les processus de condensation et de volatilisation du sodium dans les liquides silicatés du système CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 peuvent être décrits par une équation simple de type : Na(gaz) +1/2 O2(gaz) = Na2O(liq). Les données obtenues à l'équilibre sur des liquides de compositions différentes ont permis de dériver un modèle permettant de prédire la solubilité et les coefficients d’activité (aNa2O et ?Na2O) dans un liquide silicaté du système CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2, à différentes températures et différentes PNa, en fonction de la composition de ce dernier. Ce modèle est basé sur la détermination de la basicité optique du liquide sans sodium, c'est-à-dire suivant l’état de polymérisation du liquide et suivant ses interactions acide-base entre oxydes. Par ailleurs, ces travaux ont permis la détermination d’un nouveau type de diagramme de phase à isoPNa. Enfin cette étude a de nombreuses applications en cosmochimie, sidérurgie et magmatologie / Alkalis in molten silicates have a complex behaviour, changing from lithophile to volatile elements depending on temperature and/or reducing conditions. However, due to the lack of experimental data concerning activity/composition relationships, there is no thermodynamic model available to describe alkali solubility in silicate melts, and their partitioning between melts, minerals and gases. In order to tackle this issue, we have developed a new device for the determination of sodium oxide activity in silicate melts by equilibration of melts with gaseous environment of known Na partial pressure at high temperature and fixed oxygen fugacity (PO2) following: Na(gaz) +1/2 O2(gaz) = Na2O(liq). Using equilibrium data we have establish a model able to predict the sodium solubility and activity in silicate melt belonging CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 system, at differents PNa and temperatures, as a function of optical basicity, i.e. melt composition. These results have allowed us to determine new type of phase diagram at isoPNa. Finally, this study have to many applications in cosmochemistry, steel and magmatic process

Terpenos são os principais constituintes dos óleos essenciais e vêm sendo explorados há mais de 3500 anos pela humanidade. Por conta das suas propriedades flavorizantes, são amplamente empregados na indústria de cosméticos e perfumaria. Apresentam ainda uma infinidade de funções biológicas, como promoção de polinização nas plantas, e proteção contra pragas e animais. Além dessas funções, muitos compostos possuem ainda atividade antimicrobiana, anti-inflamatória, antifúngica, entre outras. Tendo em vista a simplicidade estrutural dos terpenos e a alta hidrofobicidade que sugere fracas interações intermoleculares, é difícil de se imaginar como esses compostos conseguem desempenhar funções tão específicas e diversas. É de se esperar que quanto mais complexa a estrutura do composto, mais fácil seja seu reconhecimento pelo organismo. Isso mostra o grande poder de reconhecimento do meio biológico. Nesse trabalho, os parâmetros termodinâmicos de transferência da fase aquosa para a fase micelar de 10 terpenos (carvona, cânfora, cumeno, t-anetol, eugenol, limoneno, citronelal, linalol, terpineol e verbenona) e cumarina em dois sistemas, SDS 30 mmol.kg-1 + TBS 20 mmol.kg-1 e SDS 30 mmol.kg-1 + TBS 20 mmol.kg-1 + 10% v/v de etanol foram determinados buscando elucidar a incorporação micelar desses compostos. Micelas apresentam compartimentos com diferentes polaridades e podem servir como modelo para mimetizar as diferentes interações no meio biológico. Dessa forma, a utilização da cromatografia eletrocinética micelar (MEKC, do inglês Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography) na determinação dos coeficientes de partição e dos parâmetros termodinâmicos de transferência entre as fases aquosa e micelar desses solutos pode contribuir para o entendimento da distribuição bem como auxiliar na compreensão das funções que os mesmos desempenham na natureza. A hipótese de que os parâmetros termodinâmicos podem elucidar detalhes da incorporação micelar foi ainda testada através da busca de relações lineares de energia de solvatação (LSER, do inglês Linear Solvation Energy Relashionships) com o intuito de evidenciar as principais características moleculares que contribuem para o processo detransferência. Os modelos LSER foram estudados através de regressão múltipla e análises multivariadas de PLS, SPLS, PLS-DA e SPLS-DA, com o objetivo de verificar as propriedades dos terpenos que explicam sua incorporação nas micelas. Outras análises estatísticas multivariadas, como análise de agrupamentos e PCA, foram utilizadas para estudar a variabilidade estrutural dos compostos selecionados, bem como, determinar se os descritores teóricos calculados conseguem descrever as características estruturais dos terpenos. O estudo da termodinâmica de transferência de solutos neutros da fase aquosa para a fase micelar demonstrou que mesmo pequenas diferenças estruturais das moléculas contêm informação sobre a distribuição dos compostos nos compartimentos micelares. Também podese inferir sobre o efeito do etanol nas partições e sobre a própria estrutura micelar. Os resultados para o limoneno mostraram a complexidade envolvida nas partições, levando a ideia de restrição de volume nas micelas modificadas por álcool. Resultados de LSER mostraram que a transferência da fase aquosa para a fase micelar desses compostos é governada principalmente pela interação hidrofóbica onde Vx (Volume de McGowan) foi selecionado como um dos descritores mais importantes para explicar lnP. A análise comparativa dos resultados obtidos pelos dois métodos (estudo dos parâmetros termodinâmicos e LSER) indicou similaridade de resultados. Isso demonstra a grande confiabilidade dos resultados e, então, que estudos similares usando outras soluções micelares e outras classes de compostos (hormônios, flavonoides, aminas, etc.) podem ser muito promissores. / Terpenes are the main constituents of essential oils and have been explored for more than 3,500 years. Because of their flavoring properties, terpenes are widely used in the cosmetics and perfumery industry. They also exert a multitude of ecological functions, such as the promotion of plant pollination and protection against pests and animals. In addition, many compounds have antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory activities and others. Given the structural simplicity of terpenes and the high hydrophobicity that suggests weak intermolecular interactions, it is difficult to imagine how these compounds can perform such specific and diverse functions. It is expected that the more complex the structure of the compound, the easier it is its recognition by the organism, which does not seem to be true for this class showing the great power of recognition of the biological system. In this work, the thermodynamic parameters of aqueous and micellar phase transfer of ten terpenes (carvone, camphor, cumene, t-anethol, eugenol, limonene, citronellal, linalool, terpineol, and verbenone) and coumarin in two systems, 30 mmol.kg-1 of SDS + 20 mmol.kg-1 of TBS and 30 mmol.kg-1 of SDS, 20 mmol.kg-1 of TBS, and 10% v/v of ethanol were determined to elucidate the micellar distribution of these compounds. Micelles have compartments that possess different polarities and might be a model to mimic the different interactions that terpenes may have in the biological environment. Thus, the use of micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) in the determination of the partition coefficients and the thermodynamic parameters of transfer of the aqueous phase to the micellar phase of these solutes can contribute to the understanding of the distribution, as well as help in the understanding of the functions they perform in nature. The hypothesis that the thermodynamic parameters can elucidate details of the micellar incorporation was further analyzed through the search of Linear Solvation Energy Relashionships (LSER), in order to highlight the main molecular characteristics that contribute to the transfer process. The LSER models were studied through multiple regression and other multivariate analyzes, such as PLS, SPLS, PLS-DA and SPLS-DA, in order to verify the properties of terpenes that explain their incorporation into micelles.Other multivariate statistical analysis, such as cluster analysis and PCA were used to study the structural variability of the selected compounds, as well as to determine if the calculated theoretical descriptors can describe all the structural characteristics of the terpenes. The study of thermodynamics of transfer of neutral solutes from the aqueous phase to the micellar phase has shown that even small structural differences of the molecules contain information about the distribution of the compounds in the micellar compartments. It was also possible to infer about the effect of ethanol on the partitions and on the micellar structure. The results for limonene showed the complexity involved in the partitions, showing that occurs volume restriction in alcohol-modified micelles. Results from LSER showed that the transfer of these compounds is mainly governed by hydrophobic interactions where Vx (McGowan volume) was selected as one of the most important descriptors to explain partition. The comparative analysis of the results obtained by the two methods (thermodynamic parameters studies and LSER) indicated similarity of results. This demonstrates the great reliability of the methods, and that similar studies using other micellar solutions and other classes of compounds (hormones, flavonoids, amines, etc.) might be very promising.